A General History and Collection of Voyages and Travels — Volume 01
Arranged in Systematic Order: Forming a Complete History of the Origin and Progress of Navigation, Discovery, and Commerce, by Sea and Land, from the Earliest Ages to the Present Time (2024)

(Taken from Volume 18.)

Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; from the era of AlfredKing of England, in the ninth century, to that of Don Henry of Portugal, atthe commencement of the fifteenth century.

General Voyages and Travels, chiefly of Discovery; from the era of DonHenry in 1412, to that of George III. in 1760.

General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era of George III.,which were conducted upon scientific principles, and by which the Geographyof the globe has been nearly perfected.

Historical Deduction of the Progress of Navigation, Discovery, andCommerce, by sea and land, from the earliest times to the present period.

CONTENTS

TABULAR VIEW OF THE CONTENTS OF THE SEVENTEEN VOLUMES.

VOLUME I.

Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians.

Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic.

Remarks on the situation of Sciringe-heal and Haethum, by J.R. Forster.

Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic.

—— of Sighelm to India.

Travels of John Erigena to Athens.

Geography of the known world as described by King Alfred.

Travels of Andrew Leucander.

Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem.

—— of three ambassadors from England to Constantinople.

Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem.

—— of Ingulphus.

Original discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders in the ninth century.

Early discovery of America by ditto, in 1001.

Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the ninth century.

—— of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the twelfth century.

—— of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243.

Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary.

Travels of Carpina to the Moguls, &c. in 1246.

—— of Rubruquis into Tartary about 1253.

—— of Haitho, in 1254.

—— of Marco Polo into China, &c. from 1260 to 1295.

—— of Oderic, in 1318.

—— of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322.

Itinerary of Pegoletti between Asofand China, in 1355.

Voyages, of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380.

Travels of Schiltberger into Tartary, in 1394.

—— of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in China, in 1419.

Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431.

Travels of Josaphat Barbaro from Venice to Tanna (now Asof), in 1436.

VOLUME II.

Various early pilgrimages from England to the Holy Land, between 1097 and1107.

Discovery of Madeira.

Discovery and conquest of the Canary Islands.

Discoveries along the coast of Africa; and conquests in India, from 1412 to1505.

Discoveries of the world, from their commencement to 1555,by Antonio Galvano.

Journey of Contarini into Persia, in 1473-6.

Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the western coast of Africa,during the life of Don Henry.

Original journals of the Voyages of Cada Mosto, and Pedro de Cintra, to thecoast of Africa, from 1455.

Voyages of discovery by the Portuguese along the coast of Africa, from thedeath of Don Henry, in 1463, to the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in1486.

History of the discovery and conquest of India by the Portuguese, between1497 and 1505, by Herman Lopes de Castanecla.

Letters from Lisbon in the beginning of the 16th century, respecting thediscovery of the route by sea to India, &c.

VOLUME III.

History of the discovery of America, and of some of the early conquests inthe New World.

Discovery of America, by Columbus, written by his son Don FerdinandColumbus.

—— written by Antonio de Herrera.

An account of the Voyages of Americus Vespucius to the New World, writtenby himself.

Discoveries and settlements of the Spaniards in the West Indies, from thedeath of Columbus, to the expedition of Hernando Cortes against Mexico.

History of the discovery and conquest of Mexico, written in 1568, byCaptain Bernal Diaz del Castillo, one of the conquerors.

VOLUME IV.

History of the discovery and conquest of Peru, written by Augustus Zarate.

VOLUME V.

Continuation of the history of Peru, extracted from the Commentaries ofGarcilosso de la Vega.

History of the discovery and conquest of Chili, taken from various sources.

Discovery of Florida, and ineffectual attempts to conquer that country bythe Spaniards,—from the General History of America, by Herrera.

VOLUME VI.

Early English Voyages of discovery to America.

Voyages of Jacques Cartier, from St. Maloes to Newfoundland and Canada, in1534-5.

Continuation of the discoveries and conquests of the Portuguese in theEast; with some account of the early Voyages of other European nations toIndia.

Discoveries, &c. &c. from 1505 to 1539.

A particular relation of the expedition of Solyman Pacha, from Suez toIndia, against the Portuguese; written by a Venetian officer in the Turkishservice on that occasion.

Account of the Voyage of Don Stefano de Gama, from Goa to Suez, in 1540;written by Don Juan de Castro.

Continuation of the account of the Portuguese transactions in India, from1541 to the middle of the 17th century; from De Faria's Asia.

VOLUME VII.

Voyages and Travels in Egypt, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and India, by LudovicoVerthema, in 1503-8.

—— in India, &c. by Cesar Frederic, in 1563-81.

Second Voyage to Barbary, in 1552, by Captain Thomas Windham.

Voyages to Guinea and Benin, in 1553, by Captain Windham and Antonio AnesPinteado.

—— in 1554, by Captain John Lok.

—— in 1555, by William Towerson, merchant, of London.

Second Voyage to Guinea, in 1556, by William Towerson, merchant, of London.

Third, in 1558.

Instructions for an intended Voyage to Guinea, in 1561.

Voyage to Guinea, in 1562; written by William Rutter.

Supplementary account of the foregoing Voyage.

Voyage to Guinea, in 1563, by Robert Baker.

—— in 1564, by Captain David Carlet.

—— and to the Cape de Verd Islands, in 1566, by George Fenner.

Account of the embassy of Mr. Edmund Hogan to Morocco, in 1577; by himself.

Account of the embassy of Mr. Henry Roberts from Queen Elizabeth toMorocco, in 1585; by himself.

Voyage to Benin, beyond Guinea, in 1588, by James Welsh.

Supplement to the foregoing.

Second Voyage of ditto in 1590.

Voyage of Richard Rainolds and Thomas Dassel to the Senegal and Gambia, in1591.

Some miscellaneous early Voyages of the English.

Voyage to Goa, in 1579, in the Portuguese fleet, by Thomas Stevens.

Journey over-land to India, by Ralph Fitch.

Supplement to ditto.

VOLUME VIII.

Voyage of Mr. John Eldred to Tripoli, and thence by land and river toBagdat and Basorah, in 1583.

Account of the Monsoons in India, by William Barret.

First Voyage of the English to India in 1591, by Captain Geo. Raymond andJames Lancaster.

Supplement to ditto, by John May.

Voyage of Captain Benj. Wood towards the East Indies, in 1596.

—— of Captain John Davis to the East Indies, in 1598.

—— of William Adams to Japan, in 1598.

—— of Sir Edward Michelburne to India, in 1604.

First Voyage of the English East India Company in 1601, under Captain JamesLancaster.

Account of Java and of the English at Bantam, from 1603 to 1605.

Second Voyage of the Company, in 1604, under Captain Henry Middleton.

Third Voyage of the Company, in 1607, under Captain William Keeling.

Narrative by William Hawkins during his residence in the dominions of theGreat Mogul.

Observations of William Finch, who accompanied Hawkins.

Voyage of Captain David Middleton, in 1607, to Bantam and the Moluccas.

Fourth Voyage of the Company, in 1608, under Captain Alexander Sharpey.

Voyage of Captain Richard Rowles.

Fifth Voyage of the Company, in 1609, under Captain David Middleton.

Sixth Voyage of the Company, in 1610, under Sir Henry Middleton.

Journal of the same, by Nicholas Downton.

Seventh Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain Anthony Hippou.

Notices of the same, by Peter Floris.

Eighth Voyage of the Company, in 1611, under Captain John Saris.

VOLUME IX.

Ninth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, under Captain Edward Marlow.

Tenth Voyage of the Company, in 1612, by Mr. Thomas Best.

Observations made on the foregoing by different persons.

Eleventh Voyage of the Company, in 1612, in the Salomon.

Twelfth Voyage of the Company, in 1613, under Captain Christopher Newport.

Voyage of Captain Downton to India, in 1614.

Supplement to ditto.

Journey of Richard Steel and John Crowther, from Agimere to Ispahan, in1615-16.

Voyage of Captain Peyton to India, in 1615.

Proceedings of the factory at Cranganore, by Roger Hawes.

Journal of Sir Thomas Roe, ambassador from James I. to the Emperor ofHindoostan.

Voyage to India, in 1616, by Mr. Edward Terry.

Journey of Thomas Coryat from Jerusalem to the Court of the Great Mogul.

Wrongs done the English at Banda by the Dutch, in 1617-18.

Fifth Voyage of the Joint-Stock by the Company, in 1617, under CaptainPring.

Voyage of the Ann-Royal from Surat to Mokha, in 1618.

Voyage to Surat and Jasques, in 1620.

War of Ormus, and capture of that place by the English and Persians, in1622.

Massacre of the English at Amboyna, in 1623.

Observations during a residence in the island of Chusan, in 1701, by Dr.James Cunningham.

VOLUME X.

Historical account of early circumnavigations;of Magellan, in 1519-22.of Sir Francis Drake, in 1577-80.of Sir Thomas Cnmlish, in 1586-8.of Van Noort, in 1598-1601.of George Spilbergen, in 1614-17.of Schouten and Le Maire, by Cape Horn, in 1615-17.of the Nassau fleet under Jacques Le Hermit, in 1623-6.of Captain John Cooke, accompanied by Captains Cowley and Dampier, in1683-91.in 1703-6, by William Funnell.in 1708-11, by Captain Woods Rogers and Stephen Courtney.in 1719-22, by Captain John Clipperton.in 1719-22, by Captain George Shelvocke.

VOLUME XI.

Voyage round the world, in 1721-3, by Commodore Roggewein.

—— in 1740-4, by Lord Anson.

VOLUME XII.

Commodore Byron's Voyage, in 1764-6.

Captain Wallis's Voyage, in 1766-8.

Captain Carteret's Voyage, in 1766-9.

Captain Cook's first Voyage, in 1768-70.

VOLUME XIII.

Captain Cook's first Voyage continued and concluded..

Abstract of Bougainville's Voyage, in 1766-9.

VOLUME XIV.

Captain Cook's second Voyage towards the S. Pole, in 1772-5.

VOLUME XV.

Captain Cook's second Voyage concluded.

Captain Cook's third Voyage, in 1776-80.

VOLUME XVI.

Captain Cook's third Voyage continued.

VOLUME XVII.

Captain Cook's third Voyage concluded.

Commodore Byron's narrative of his shipwreck, &c.; written by himself.

Bulkeley's narrative of the same.

A

GENERAL

HISTORY AND COLLECTION

OF

ARRANGED IN SYSTEMATIC ORDER:

FORMING A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE ORIGIN AND PROGRESS

OF NAVIGATION, DISCOVERY, AND COMMERCE,

BY SEA AND LAND,

FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME.

BY

ROBERT KERR, F.R.S. & F.A.S. EDIN.

ILLUSTRATED BY MAPS AND CHARTS.

VOL. I.

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD, EDINBURGH:

AND T. CADELL, LONDON.

MDCCCXXIV.

Go to Contents of VolumeI

TO HIS EXCELLENCY,
THE HONOURABLE SIR ALEXANDER COCHRANE, K.B.
VICE-ADMIRAL OF THE WHITE,
LATE COMMANDER IN CHIEF
OF HIS MAJESTY'S NAVAL FORCES ON THE LEEWARD ISLAND STATION,
NOW GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE ISLAND OF GUADALOUPE, &C. &C.&C.

Dear Sir,

Unused to the adulatory language of dedications, I am wellaware that any such mode of address would offend your delicacy.While, therefore, I gratify my own feelings by inscribing thiswork with your valued name, I only use the freedom to assure yourExcellency, that I have the honour to be, with the warmestsentiments of respectful esteem and sincere regard,

Dear Sir,

Your affectionate friend, and gratefully devoted servant,

ROBERT KERR.

Edinburgh, 1st March 1811.

PREFACE.

In this enlightened age, when every department of science andliterature is making rapid progress, and knowledge of every kindexcites uncommon interest, and is widely diffused, this attemptto call the attention of the public to a Systematic Arrangementof Voyages and Travels, from the earliest period of authentichistory to the present time, ought scarcely to require anyapology. Yet, on appearing before the tribunal of public opinion,every author who has not cherished an unreasonable estimate ofhis own qualifications, must necessarily be impressed withconsiderable anxiety respecting the probable reception of hiswork; and may be expected to offer some account of the plan andmotives of what he proposes to lay before the public.

The present work is the first of the kind that has ever beenattempted in Scotland: and though, as already avowed in theProspectus, the Editor has no wish to detract from the merits ofsimilar publications, it might appear an overstrained instance offalse delicacy to decline a statement of the circ*mstances which,he presumes to hope, will give some prospect of the work beingreceived with attention and indulgence, perhaps with favour. Itcertainly is the only General History and Collection ofVoyages and Travels that has been hitherto attempted in theEnglish language, upon any arrangement that merits theappellation of a systematic plan. And hence, should theplan adopted be found only comparatively good, in so far thesystem of arrangement must be pronounced the best that has beenas yet devised. If this be conceded, and the fact is too obviousto require extended proof or minute elucidation, the Editor shallnot feel mortified even if his arrangement may be considerablyimproved hereafter.

The only work on the subject that has the smallest pretensionsto system, and that is fanciful, involved, irregular, abrupt, andobscure, is PURCHAS HIS PILGRIMS. Even admitting the plan of thatwork to be in itself excellent; although it may be a GeneralHistory, so far as it extends, it certainly is in no respecta Complete Collection of Voyages and Travels. In a verylarge proportion of that curious work, it is the authorwho speaks to the reader, and not the traveller. In thepresent work, wherever that could possibly be accomplished, ithas uniformly been the anxious desire of the Editor that thevoyagers and travellers should tell their own story: In thatdepartment of his labour, his only object has been to assume thecharacter of interpreter between them and the readers, bytranslating foreign or antiquated language into modern English.Sometimes, indeed, where no record remains of particular voyagesand travels, as written by the persons who performed them, theEditor has necessarily had recourse to their historians. But, onevery such occasion, the most ancient and most authenticaccessible sources have been anxiously sought after and employed.In every extensive work, it is of the utmost consequence that itsvarious parts should be arranged upon a comprehensive andperspicuously systematic plan. This has been accordingly aimed atwith the utmost solicitude in the present undertaking; and theorder of its arrangement was adopted after much deliberation, andfrom a very attentive consideration of every general work of thesame nature that could be procured. If, therefore, the systematicorder on which it is conducted shall appear well adapted to thesubject, after an attentive perusal and candid investigation, theEditor confidently hopes that his labours may bear a faircomparison with any similar publication that has yet been broughtforward.

In the short Prospectus of this work, formerly submitted tothe public, a very general enunciation only, of the heads of theintended plan, was attempted; as that was then deemed sufficientto convey a distinct idea of the nature, arrangement, anddistribution of the proposed work. Unavoidable circ*mstancesstill necessarily preclude the possibility, or the proprietyrather, of attempting to give a more full and completedevelopement of the divisions and subdivisions of the systematicarrangement which is to be pursued, and which circ*mstances mayrequire some elucidation.

An extensive and minutely arranged plan was carefully devisedand extended by the Editor, before one word of the work waswritten or compiled, after an attentive examination of everyaccessible former collection; That plan has been since anxiouslyreconsidered, corrected, altered, and extended, in the progressof the work, as additional materials occurred: yet the Editorconsiders that the final and public adoption of his plan, in apositively fixed and pledged systematic form, any farther thanhas been already conveyed in the Prospectus, would have theeffect to preclude the availment of those new views of thesubject which are continually afforded by additional materials,in every progressive step of preparation for the press. Thenumber of books of voyages and travels, as well general asparticular, is extremely great; and, even if the whole were atonce before the Editor, it would too much distract his attentionfrom the division or department in which he is engaged for thetime, to attempt studying and abstracting every subdivision atonce. The grand divisions, however, which have been alreadyindicated in the Prospectus, and the general principles of theplan, which are there explained, are intended to be adhered to;as no reasons have been discovered, after the most attentiveconsideration, for any deviation from that carefully adoptedarrangement, the heads of which are here repeated.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK.

PART I.

Voyages and Travels of Discovery in the middle ages; fromthe era of Alfred, King of England, in the ninth century to thatof Don Henry of Portugal at the commencement of the fourteenthcentury.

PART II.

General Voyages and Travels chiefly of Discovery; from theera of Don Henry, in 1412, to that of George III. in1760.

PART III.

Particular Voyages and Travels arranged in systematicorder, Geographical and Chronological.

Note.--This part will be divided into five books,comprehending, I. Europe.--II. Asia.--III. Africa.--IV.America.--V. Australia and Polynesia; or the prodigious multitudeof islands in the, great: Pacific Ocean. And all these will befurther subdivided into particular chapters or sectionscorrespondent to the geographical arrangements of these severalportions of the globe.

PART IV.

General Voyages and Travels of Discovery during the era ofGeorge III. which were conducted upon scientific principles, andby which the Geography of the globe has been nearlyperfected.

PART V.

Historical Deduction of the Progress of NavigationDiscovery and Commerce by sea and land, from the earliest timesto the present period.

In the deliberate construction of this systematic plan, it hasbeen a leading object of anxious consideration, to reduce theextensive and interesting materials of which the work is composedunder a clear, intelligible, and comprehensive arrangement, socombined in a geographical and chronological series, that eachsuccessive division and subdivision, throughout the whole work,may prepare the mind of the reader for that which is to follow,and may assist the memory in the recollection of what has gonebefore. By these means, an attentive perusal of this work mustnecessarily be of material usefulness, in fixing distinct andjust ideas of geography, history, and chronology in the minds ofits readers; besides the important information and rationalamusem*nt which it will afford, by the frequent description ofmanners, customs, laws, governments, and many othercirc*mstances, of all the countries and nations of the world.

In determining upon an era for the commencement of this work,the Editor was naturally led, from a consideration of theaccidental discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in theninth century, as coincident with the reign of the greatALFRED, who ascended the throne of England in 872, to adopt thatperiod as the beginning of the series, both because thecommencement of modern maritime discovery took place during thereign of a British sovereign, and because we derive the earliestwritten accounts of any of these discoveries from the pen of thatexcellent prince. It is true that the first accidental discoveryof Iceland appears to have been made in 861, eleven years beforethe accession of Alfred to the throne; yet, as the actualcolonization of that island did not take place till the year 878,the seventh of his glorious reign, we have been induced todistinguish the actual commencement of maritime discovery by themodern European nations as coinciding with his era.

From that time, till the year 1412, when Don Henry, Prince ofPortugal, first began to prosecute a consecutive series ofmaritime discoveries along the western coast of Africa, duringwhich a long inactive period of 551 years had elapsed, the onlymaritime incident connected with our subject, was the accidentalre-discovery of the Canary or Fortunate Islands, by a namelessFrenchman, about the year 1330, though they were not attempted tobe taken possession of till 1400. This long interval, between theeras of King Alfred and Don Henry, constitutes the firstPart, or grand division of our work, in the course of which, aconsiderable number of adventurous travellers penetrated into thealmost unknown regions of Tartary and the East, and considerablenotices of the empire of China, and even of Japan, and of thecoast and islands of India and north-eastern Africa, werecommunicated to the Europeans by the Polos and others.

In separating Part IV. from Part II. the General Voyages andTravels of Discovery which have been undertaken during the longand busy reign of our present venerable Sovereign, from those ofa similar nature which succeeded the discovery of the new world,and of the route by sea to India, the Editor only pays a justtribute to the enlightened spirit of the age, under themunificent and enlightened patronage of the beloved Monarch of afree and happy people. Those former voyages of Part II. weremostly undertaken from mere interested views of direct orexpected commercial benefit; while these of the era of GeorgeIII. originated in the grand principles of endeavouring to extendthe bounds of science and human happiness.

Perhaps it may occur to some readers, that PART V. the last inorder of the general heads of our plan, ought to have formed PARTI. as partaking of the nature of an introduction to the subject,and forming a summary of the whole work. Upon even a very slightconsideration, however, it must be obvious, that it is impossibleto compose that proposed deduction in any adequate manner, untilthe whole mass of selected materials is possessed by the Editor,and definitively arranged. It may likewise be known to many, thatintroductions and prefaces, though usually placed at thebeginning of books, are uniformly and necessarily last composed,and usually last printed, except in new editions.

A great variety of Collections of Voyages and Travels havebeen published at different periods, many of which areinaccessible from their scarcity, or from being in foreignlanguages: And such great numbers of Voyages and Travels toparticular regions and countries have been printed, as to beAltogether unattainable by the generality of readers. Everything, however, which could contribute to the perfection of thiswork has been collected, or will be carefully procured during itsprogress; and no pains or expense shall be withheld which, cancontribute to render it as complete and comprehensive aspossible. In the employment of the vast variety and extent ofexcellent materials, great care shall be taken to insert everyuseful and curious information, reduced, where necessary, tomodern language; and nothing shall be omitted which is conduciveto valuable information and rational amusem*nt.

In our approach towards the present times, the multitude ofparticular Voyages and Travels increases prodigiously; and, inemploying these, it becomes peculiarly necessary to make aselection of the best in every period, and especially of thosebest adapted for conveying just ideas of each geographicaldivision and subdivision of the world; while those of less merit,but which contain useful notices of the regions and countries ofwhich they treat, shall be carefully epitomized in illustrationof the different subjects. Without the employment of discriminateselection and occasional abridgement, this work must haveextended to an inconvenient and consequently expensive size, ormust have been left unfinished and abrupt in some of its parts:But abridgement shall be very seldom employed and neverwithout acknowledgment. Indeed, the grand object of thepresent work is to bring together a more complete and entirecollection of Voyages and Travels, than has hitherto appeared inany language.

From the nature of the plan, it is utterly impossible toascertain, with any precision, the exact length to which it mayextend; but, so far as can be judged of at present, it is notexpected to exceed eighteen or twenty volumes. Throughout thewhole work, a series of Maps and Charts will be inserted in theirproper places, carefully selected and constructed for the purposeof illustrating the various Voyages and Travels. At the close ofthe whole, a complete Index will be given to the entire series ofvolumes, so arranged as to form a regular Gazetteer of thewhole world. In every article which has been adopted into thiswork, the original and accessory sources of all the materialsshall be distinctly indicated. Notes of explanation will begiven, wherever necessary; and, as many of these are drawn fromvarious sources, the names of the authors from whom they areadopted shall always be acknowledged: Such notes as are marked bythe letter E. are by the Editor of the work.

Owing to the indispensable nature of this work, it makes nopositive claim to the character of an original composition, inthe strict acceptation of that term; and he, therefore, who hasundertaken the care of its collection and arrangement, assumes nohigher title than that of Editor. In the discharge of thatduty, however, the labour which he has necessarily bestowed,though always pleasing, has often been considerable, andsometimes arduous; and he trusts that the plan of the work, whichis altogether original, will be found appropriately adapted tothe end in view, and that the execution may appear not inadequateto the high importance of the subject. Without imputation ofarrogance, he may be permitted to assert, that he has exerted themost unremitting attention and industry, in the collection,selection, and preparation of the several portions of the wholework, and in the arrangement and distribution of its parts. Hehas the satisfaction to add, that all his efforts have beenseconded with the utmost readiness and liberality by theProprietor of the work, who has spared no trouble, andwithheld no expense, in procuring and supplying the necessarymaterials.

It is with much grateful satisfaction, that the Editor has toacknowledge his high obligations to the Curators and Librariansof the Edinburgh public libraries, belonging to the Faculty ofAdvocates, the University, and the Writers to his Majesty'sSignet, for the communication of many valuable and scarcematerials. Nor ought he to withhold his tribute of gratitude, onthis occasion, from the liberal spirit of a private individual,the Reverend Henry White of Lichfield, who has most obliginglyoffered the use of his valuable Collection of Voyages andTravels, and other curious and scarce works connected with thesubject, for assisting towards the perfection of thispublication.

Having thus briefly announced the nature, plan, and object ofthe present work, of which this first Volume is now beforethe public, it only remains to say, that the Editor andProprietor, each in his particular department, are resolved toexert their utmost endeavours, that nothing may be omitted whichcan contribute to render the work deserving of public approbationand extensive patronage.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME I.

PREFACE.

GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK.

PART I.

Voyages and Travels of Discovery, from the Era of Alfred, Kingof England, in the Ninth Century, to the Era of Don Henry, Princeof Portugal, at the commencement of the Fifteenth Century.

CHAPTER I.

Discoveries in the time of Alfred, King of England, in theNinth Century of the Christian Era.

Section I.

Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians, in the NinthCentury

Section II.

Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in theNinth Century

Section III.

Remarks on the situation of Sciringes-heal and Haethum, by J.R. Forster

Section IV.

Voyage of Wulfstein in the Baltic, as related to KingAlfred

Section IV. [1]

[1] By error of the press, Sect, IV. has beennumerically repeated.

Voyage of Sighelm to India, in the reign of Alfred, Kingof

Section V.

Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the Ninth-Century

Section VI.

Geography of the known World, in the Ninth Century, asdescribed by King Alfred

Section VII.

VII. Travels of Andrew Leucander, in the Eleventh Century

Section VIII.

Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem, in 1052

Section IX.

Voyage of three Ambassadors from England to Constantinople,about 1056

Section X.

Pilgrimage of Alured to Jerusalem, in 1058

Section XI.

Pilgrimage of Ingulphus to Jerusalem, in 1064

CHAPTER II.

Original Discovery of Greenland by the Icelanders, in theNinth Century

CHAPTER III.

Early Discovery of Winland, or America, by the Icelanders,about the year 1001

CHAPTER IV.

Travels of two Mahometans into India and China, in the NinthCentury

CHAPTER V.

Travels of Rabbi Benjamin from Spain to China, in the TwelfthCentury

CHAPTER VI.

Travels of an Englishman in Tartary, in 1243

CHAPTER VII.

Sketch of the Revolutions in Tartary

CHAPTER VIII.

Travels of John de Piano Carpini, in 1246

CHAPTER IX.

Travels of W. de Rubruquis, about 1253

CHAPTER X.

Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, in 1254

CHAPTER XI.

Travels of Marco Polo into China and the East; from A.D. 1260to 1295

CHAPTER XII.

Travels of Oderic of Portenau, in 1318

CHAPTER XIII.

Travels of Sir John Mandeville, in 1322

CHAPTER XIV.

Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof and China, in 1355

CHAPTER XV.

Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, in 1380

CHAPTER XVI.

Travels of Schildtberger, in 1394

CHAPTER XVII.

Travels of the Ambassadors of Shah Rokh, in 1419

CHAPTER XVIII.

Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini, in 1431

CHAPTER XIX.

Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, in 1436

(Transcriber's note: The following errata have been applied tothe text.)

ERRATA.

Page 8, line 26, for insulated readinhabited

51, 21, for phenomena read phenomenon

62, 41, after each insert of the

118 33, after thirteenth insert century

165, note 7, for Keander read Theander.

VOYAGES AND TRAVELS OF DISCOVERY, FROM THE ERA OF ALFRED,KING OF ENGLAND, IN THE NINTH CENTURY; TO THE ERA OF DON HENRY,PRINCE OF PORTUGAL, AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE FIFTEENTHCENTURY.

CHAPTER I.

Discoveries in the time of Alfred King ofEngland, in the ninth century of the Christian era.

INTRODUCTION.

In the midst of the profound ignorance and barbarism whichoverspread the nations of Western Europe, after the dissolutionof the Roman empire in the West, a transient ray of knowledge andgood government was elicited by the singular genius of the greatAlfred, a hero, legislator, and philosopher, among a peoplenearly barbarous. Not satisfied with having delivered hisoppressed and nearly ruined kingdom from the ravages of thealmost savage Danes and Nordmen, and the little less injuriousstate of anarchy and disorganization into which the weakness ofthe vaunted Anglo-Saxon system of government had plunged England,he for a time restored the wholesome dominion of the laws, andeven endeavoured to illuminate his ignorant people by theintroduction of useful learning. In the prosecution of thesepatriotic views, and for his own amusem*nt and instruction,besides other literary performances, he made a translation of thehistorical work of Orosius into his native Anglo-Saxon dialect;into which he interwove the relations of Ohthere and Wulfstan, ofwhich hereafter, and such other information as he could collectrespecting the three grand divisions of the world then known;insomuch, that his account of Europe especially differs verymaterially from that of Orosius, of which he only professed tomake a translation.

Although Alfred only mounted the throne of England in 872, ithas been deemed proper to commence the series of this work withthe discovery of Iceland by the Nordmen or Norwegians, about theyear 861, as intimately connected with the era which has beendeliberately chosen as the best landmark of our proposedsystematic History and Collection of Voyages and Travels. Thatentirely accidental incident is the earliest geographicaldiscovery made by the modern nations, of which any authenticrecord now remains, and was almost the only instance of the kindwhich occurred, from the commencement of the decline of the Romanpower, soon after the Christian era, for nearly fourteencenturies. And as the colonization of Iceland did not begin tillA.D. 878, the insertion of this circ*mstance in the presentplace, can hardly be considered as at all deviating from the mostrigid principles of our plan.

SECTION I.

Discovery of Iceland by the Norwegians in the NinthCentury[1].

[1] Fragm. Vet. Islandic. ap. Langebeck, II.31.--Forster, Hist. of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p.50.

It were foreign to our present object to attempt anydelineation of the piratical, and even frequently conqueringexpeditions of the various nations of Scandinavia, who, under thenames of Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Danes, and Normans, so longharassed the fragments of the Roman empire. About the year 861,one Naddod, a Nordman or Norwegian vikingr, or chief of a band offreebooters, who, during a voyage to the Faro islands, was thrownby a storm upon the eastern coast of an unknown country,considerably beyond the ordinary course of navigation, to whichhe gave the significant name of Snio-land, or Snow-land, from theimmense quantities of snow which every where covered its numerouslofty mountains, even in the height of summer, and filled itsmany valleys during a long and dreary winter. As Naddod gave arather favourable account of his discovery on his return toNorway, one Gardar Suafarson, of Swedish origin, who was settledin Norway, determined upon making an expedition to Snow-land in864; and having circumnavigated the whole extent of this newdiscovery, he named it from himself, Gardars-holm, orGardars-island.

Gardar employed so long a time in this expedition, that, notdeeming it safe to navigate the northern ocean during the stormsof winter, he remained on the island until the ensuing spring,when he sailed for Norway. He there reported, that though theisland was entirely covered with wood, it was, in other respects,a fine country. From the favourable nature of this report, oneFlocke, the son of Vigvardar, who had acquired great reputationamong the Nordmen or Normans, as an experienced and intrepidvikingr or pirate, resolved to visit the newly-discovered island.Flocke likewise wintered in the northern part of the island,where he met with immense quantities of drift ice, from whichcirc*mstance he chose to give it the name of Iceland, which itstill bears. He was by no means pleased with the country,influenced, no doubt, by the unfavourable impression he hadimbibed by spending a long protracted winter on the drearynorthern shore, amid almost ever-during arctic ice, andsurrounded by the most unpromising sterility; and though some ofhis companions represented the land as pleasing and fertile, thedesire of visiting Iceland seems, for some time, to have laindormant among the adventurous Norwegian navigators; probablybecause neither fame nor riches could be acquired, either bytraffic or depredation, in a country which was utterly destituteof inhabitants.

At length, in 874, two friends, Ingolf and Lief, repaired toIceland, and were so much satisfied with its appearance, thatthey formed a resolution of attempting to make a settlement inthe country; induced, doubtless, by a desire to withdraw from thecontinual wars and revolutions which then harassed the north ofEurope, and to escape from the thraldom which the incipientmonarchies of Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, were then imposingupon the independent chiefs or vikingr of the Normans. Inpursuance of this determination, Ingolf transported some peopleto Iceland, about the year 878, with several cattle, and allkinds of implements, to enable him to commence a colony. At thisperiod his friend Lief was absent in the English wars; but wentsoon afterwards into Iceland, to which he carried the booty whichhe had acquired in England.

The first discoverers of Iceland are said to have found someIrish books, bells, and croziers on the coast; whence it has beenimagined, that some people from Ireland had resided thereprevious to its discovery and settlement by the Normans. But itseems a more probable supposition, to account for these articleshaving been seen, that a party of Norman pirates or vikingr, whohad previously landed in Ireland, or perhaps on Icolmkil, and hadcarried away the plunder of some abbey or monastery, had beendriven to Iceland by a storm, and wrecked upon the coast, wherethese articles might have been washed on shore: Or they may haveattributed the storm, by which they were driven so far beyondtheir knowledge, to the anger of the God of the Christians, fortheir sacrilegious robbery of a holy institution, and may haveleft these articles behind, in hopes of propitiating a morefavourable termination to their voyage. The first settlers foundextensive forests in the valleys of Iceland; and we know, fromauthentic documents, that corn was formerly cultivated withdecent success in that northern region; whereas, in the presentday, not a tree is to be found in the whole island, except somestunted birches, and very low bushes or underwood, in the mostsheltered situations, and no corn will now ripen, even in themost favourable years. But the roots and stumps of large firs arestill to be seen in various parts; and the injurious alterationof its climate is known to have been occasioned by the straitsbetween old Greenland and Iceland having been many yearschoked up with ice, which the short summers of that high latitudeare not sufficiently powerful to dissolve.

About the present period, Harold Harfa*gr, or the fair-haired,one of the petty sovereigns or vikingr of Norway, began tosubjugate the other chieftains of the country under his paramountauthority, and was so successful as to establish the Norwegianmonarchy in 875. Gorm, likewise, about the same time, united thepetty states of Jutland and the Danish islands into one kingdom,as Ingiald Illrode had done long before in Sweden. Suchindependent spirits as found themselves dissatisfied with thisnew order of affairs, found a sure asylum in Iceland; and theemigrations to this new country became so numerous, that Haroldat length deemed it expedient to impose a tax of half a mark ofsilver, equal to five pounds of our modern money, on every one ofhis subjects who were desirous of going to settle in thatisland.

SECTION II.

Voyages of Ohthere to the White Sea and the Baltic, in theNinth Century.[1]

[1] Anglo-Saxon Version of Orosius, by Alfred theGreat, translated by Daines Barrington, p. 9.--Langebeck, Script.Dan. II. 106-118.-- Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p.53.

Some of the Norwegian chieftains, who were dissatisfied withthe usurpation of supreme authority by Harold, took refuge inEngland, where Alfred had recently settled many of the vanquishedDanes and Nordmen in the northern part of his dominions, whichhad been almost entirely depopulated and laid waste, by theirlong-continued and destructive ravages. Among these was oneOhthere, who had made himself famous by his voyages to unknownparts of the north, and who was invited to court by Alfred, togive an account of the discoveries and observations he had madeduring his unusual expeditions. This person had been a chief ofsome note in his own country, and dwelt at a place which hecalled Halgoland, supposed by some to have been in Numadalen,while others say in Nordland, the most northerly p province ofNorway proper. In the succeeding paragraph, he is said to havedwelt opposite to the West Sea, and as Alfred only usesthe word sea to denote a confined expanse or narrow channel,while he calls the ocean Garsecg, it seems highly probable, that,by the West Sea, the west ford was intended,--a channel orstrait which divides the Luffoden islands from the coast ofNordland, which would clearly place the residence of Ohthere inthis northern province. The account which he gave of his voyagesto his royal patron, is as follows.

Ohthere told his lord King Alfred, that lie lived to the northof all the Nordmen or Norwegians; and that he dwelt in that landto the northward, opposite to the west sea; and that all the landto the north of that sea is waste and uninhabited except in a fewplaces, to which the Finans[2] or Fins repair in winter forhunting and fowling, and for fishing in the summer. Beingdesirous to ascertain how far this country extended towards thenorth, and whether there were any inhabitants beyond thesewastes, he proceeded by sea due north from his own habitation,leaving the desert land all the way on the starboard orright-hand, and the wide sea on the larboard or left-hand of hiscourse. After three days sail, he was as far north as thewhale-hunters ever go[3]; and then proceeded in his course duenorth for other three days, when he found the land, instead ofstretching due north, as hitherto[4], to trend from thencetowards the east. Whether the sea there lies within the land, heknew not[5], as he only waited for a west wind, and then sailednear that land eastwards, as far as he could, in four days; as hefound the direction of the coast then to change to due south, hewaited for a north wind, and then sailed due south as far as becould in five days.

[2] Ohthere here calls the inhabitants of the desertFins, and it would appear that the Laplanders are actually Fins,or Finlanders; the name of Laps or Laplanders being of modernorigin, and the Danes and Norwegians still call this countryFinmark.--Forst

[3] In former translations of Alfred, this passage isrendered as follows: "He was within three days sail of being asfar north as the whale-hunters ever go." This expression is vagueand ambiguous, and rather means that the residence from whence heset out was within three days sail, &c.; whereas the nextmember of the same sentence distinctly indicates a precedingthree days sail, as in the adopted translation.--E.

[4] This is not quite accurate, as the coast ofNorway, in the course of Ohthere, stretches N.N.E. He was nowarrived at the North Cape, whence the coast towards the White Seatrends E. and by N.--E.

[5] This doubt, of whether the sea lies within theland or not, probably refers to the numerous inlets or fiordsalong the whole coast of Norway and Finmark, and may mean, thathe did not examine whether the land might not be parcelled outinto innumerable islands.--E.

In this land he found a large river, at the mouth of which helay to, as he could not proceed much farther, on account of theinhabitants being hostile. All the land on one side of this riverwas inhabited, and tolerably well cultivated, but he had not metwith any inhabitants till now, since he left his own country; thewhole land on his right being a desert, and without inhabitants,except the fishers, fowlers, and hunters, before-mentioned, whowere all Fins; and the open sea lay on his left hand during hiswhole voyage. The Beormas [6], indeed, had well peopled theircountry, for which reason he did not venture to enter upon it;and the land of the Terfenna [7], which he had passed hitherto,was all a desert, with the exception of the hunters and fishersalready mentioned.

[6] The Beormas are the Biarmians or Permians of thenorthern writers; and Perm or Permia is still mentioned among thenumerous titles of the emperors of Russia.--Forat.

[7] The Terfennas are mentioned as different from theScrite-fennas. These were distinguished by Guido, the geographerof Ravenna, in the seventh century, into Rerefinni andScritifinni. The latter lived entirely by hunting, and woresnow-shoes in winter, called Schrit. The former subsisted ontheir herds of rein-deer, and perhaps ought to have beentherefore called Rene-finni. The name in the text ought perhapsto have been Rhane-fenna, as he tells us they had rein-deer, andemployed decoy deer to catch the wild. Perhaps Fer-fenna, fromtheir travelling in sledges; from farra, to travel in acarriage.--Forst.

The Beormas told him many particulars about their land, and ofthe neighbouring countries; but he could not rely on theiraccounts, as he had no opportunity of seeing with his own eyes,but it seemed to him that the Beormas and Fins spoke the samelanguage [8]. Ohthere stated, that his motive for thisexpedition, besides some little curiosity to explore thesecountries, which were unknown to his countrymen, was principallyin pursuit of horse-whales [9], which are valuable, because theirtusks are excellent ivory, some of which he brought to the king,and because their hides serve for making into ropes for ships.This species of the whale is much smaller than the other kind,being seldom more than seven ells in length; while the otherspecies is often forty-eight ells long, and sometimes even fifty.In this country was the best whale-fishing that Ohthere had everseen, the whales being so numerous, that he was one of six whokilled threescore in three days[10].

[8] It is highly probable, from this remark, in whichOhthere could not be mistaken, as it will appear in the sequelthat he must have been perfectly well acquainted with the Fins,that the Biarmians were a branch of the great Finnish stock. Theprincipal difference seems to have been, that the Fins continuedto be wandering hunters and herdsmen, while the Beormas orBiarmians had advanced to the state of fixed cultivators of thesoil. They had likewise an idol called Jomala, which is still thename of one of the deities of theFinlanders.--Forst.

[9] The morse is here named horse-whale by kingAlfred, with infinitely greater propriety than the appellation ofsea-horse, which long prevailed in our language. The tusks ofthis animal are still considered as excellent ivory, and arepeculiarly valuable for the construction of false teeth; andleather made from the hide is still used in Russia forcoach-harness, but stretches more when wet than any otherleather.--Forst.

[10] It would appear, from the vast number killed,that this successful fishing must refer to the morse orhorse-whale, not to the ordinary large whale.--E.

Ohthere was a very rich man in those things which areconsidered as valuable in his country, and possessed, at the timewhen he came to the king, six hundred tame deer, none of which hehad bought; besides which, he had six decoy deer, which are muchin request among the Fins, as by means of them, they are enabledto catch wild deer. Yet, though one of the richest men in theseparts, he had only twenty head of cattle, twenty sheep, andtwenty swine; and what little land he had in tillage was ploughedby horses. The principal wealth of the Norman chiefs in thatcountry consisted in tribute exacted from the Fins; being paid inskins of wild beasts, feathers, whalebone, cables and ropes forships, made from the hides of whales or seals. Every one pays inproportion to his substance: the wealthiest paying the skins offifteen martins, five rein-deer skins, and one bear-skin, a coator cloak made of bear-skin or otters skins, and two cables orship ropes of sixty ells long each, one of which is made of whalehide, and the other from the skins of seals.

According to the description given to the king by Ohthere,Northmanna-land, or Norway, is very long and narrow, all the landwhich is fit for pasture or tillage being on the seacoast, whichis very rocky in some places. To the east of this, and parallelto the cultivated land, there are wild and huge mountains andmoors, which are inhabited by the Fins. The cultivated land isbroadest in the south[11], where it is sixty miles broad, and insome places more; about the middle of the country, it is perhapsthirty miles broad, or somewhat more; and where it is narrowestin the north, it is hardly more than three miles from the sea tothe moors. In some places, the moors are so extensive that a mancan hardly travel across them in a fortnight, and in other placesperhaps in six days.

[11] In the original, the broad and comparativelyfertile part of Norway is said to be in the east: thecorrection adopted in the text is obvious andnecessary.--E.

Opposite to the south part of this country is Sueoland[12], orSweden, on the other side of the moors, and opposite to itsnorthern part is Cwenland. The Cwens sometimes pass the moors andmountains to invade and plunder the country of the Normans; wholikewise sometimes retaliate, by crossing over to spoil theirland. In these moors, there are some very large meres orlakes of fresh water, and the Cwenas[13] sometimes carry theirsmall light ships over land into these lakes, and employ them tofacilitate their depredations on the Nordmen. Ohthere says, thatthe shire or district which he inhabited is called Halgoland, andthat there were no inhabitants beyond him to the north. There islikewise a port in the southern land, which is calledSciringes-heal[14], which no one could reach in a month'ssailing, even with a fair wind, at least if he lay to at night.During this voyage, the navigator must sail near the land, ormake a coasting voyage along the coast of Norway towards thesouth, having Iraland[15], and the islands which arebetween that country and Norway, on his right hand; for thiscountry continues all the way on the left hand of the navigator,from Halgoland to Sciringes-heal. As he proceeds again to thenorthward, a great sea to the south of Sciringes-heal runs upinto this land, and that sea is so wide, that a person cannot seeacross it. Gotland[16] is opposite on the other side, orright-hand; and afterwards the sea of Sillende[17] lies manymiles up in that country.

[12] In former translations, this passage is:"opposite to this land, to the south, is Sueoland." Thealteration in the text removes the ambiguity--E.

[13] Cwenland and the Cwenas appear to refer toLapmark, and its inhabitants, theFinlanders.--Forst.

[14] See Sect. iii. p. 12, in which this place issupposed by Mr J. R. Forster to have been where Stockholm nowis.

[15] Iraland obviously here means Scotland, with theFaro, Shetland, and Orkney islands.--E.

[16] This is plainly the isle ofGothland.--E.

[17] Apparently the Baltic proper is here called thesea of Sillende, and may have been named from the isle ofZeeland. Yet in this passage it seems to refer to the gulf ofBothnia, as running far up into the country.--E.

Ohthere farther says, that he sailed in five days fromSciringes-heal to that port which is called Haethum [18], whichlies between Winedum, Seaxun, and Anglen, and makes part of Dene.When he sailed to this place from Sciringes-heal, Dene, orDenmark, was on his left, and on his right was a wide sea forthree days; as were also on his right, two days before he came toHaethum, Gotland, Sillende, and many other islands, which wereinhabited by the Angles before they came to Britain; and duringthese two days, the islands belonging to Denmark were on his lefthand.

[18] See Sect. iii. p. 14, in which Forsterendeavours to fix this place at Aarhuus in Jutland.

SECTION III.

Remarks by J. M. Forster, respecting the situation ofSciringes-heal and Haethum[1].

[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. 67.

The name of this place, Sciringes-heal, has given a great dealof trouble to former commentators on Alfred; viz. Sir JohnSpelman, Bussaeus, Somner, John Philip Murray, and Langebeck, whohave all chosen spots totally different, in which to placeSciringes-heal. Spelman, and others, look for this place nearDantzic, where, in their opinion, the Scyres formerly resided.But, first, the spot where the Scyres lived, is by no meanssatisfactorily determined; and, next, it is evident that Ohtherewent continually along the coast from Halgoland toSciringes-heal, and that this coast was on his left-hand duringthe whole course of his navigation. The late Mr Murray placedSciringes-heal at Skanor, in the southern extremity of Sweden;but I cannot think that this place could be five days sail fromHaethum in Jutland, as it is expressly declared to have been byOhthere. Langebeck is for carrying Sciringes-heal to Konga-hella,on the Guatelf, near Marstrand; and insists, that the name, inAlfred's account of the voyage, ought to have been writtenCyninges-heal instead of Sciringes-heal. If the word had onlyonce occurred, I might have allowed Langebeck to be right; but wemeet with it five times in the space of a few lines, and alwayswithout the slightest variation in orthography. 2dly, The voyagefrom Halgoland to Konga-hella is not of sufficient extent to haveemployed a month in the passage. 3dly, Konga-hella is too nearJutland to have required five days for the voyage between it andHaethum.

Having demonstrated the insufficiency of these conjectures, weshall now endeavour to point out where Sciringes-heal was reallysituated. Paul Warenfried, in his Historia Longobardorum, Lib. i,cap. 7. and 10. makes mention of a district, named Scorunga, inwhich the Winili, or Lombards resided, for some time before theyremoved to Mairinga and from thence, farther on to Gotland,Anthabet, Bethaib, and Purgendaid. This Scorunga was not far fromGotland, and consequently in Sweden; and seems to have been thedistrict in which Sciringes-heal was situated. Add to this, thatOhthere, after having described Sueoland, or Sweden, as being tothe southwards of his habitation, immediately says, "there is aport in this southern land which is called Sciringes-heal." Bythis, he seems plainly to indicate, that this place certainly wasin Sweden; and all this will appear, still more evidently, if wecarefully follow the course of the voyage which he describes.First of all, he has Scotland, called Iraland, evidently bymistake, and the Orkney and Shetland islands, which lie betweenScotland and Halgoland, on his right hand; and the continent iscontinually on his left hand, all the way, until he arrive atSciringes- heal. But farther, a large bay stretches to thenorthward, deep into the country, along the coast of which he hadbeen continually sailing; and this bay commences quite to thesouthward of Sciringes-heal, and is so broad that a man cannotsee across, and Gotland is directly opposite to this bay[2]. Butthe sea, which extended from Zeeland to this spot, goes manyhundred miles up into the country to the eastwards.

[2] It appears to me, that the description given byOhthere, implies, that Gotland was directly opposite toSciringes-heal, or to the east. --E.

From Sciringes-heal, Ohthere could sail in five days toHaethum, which lies between the Wends Saxons and Angles. Now, bythis voyage, we are enabled to determine, with still greaterexactness, the situation of this place which we are searchingfor. In order to get to Haethum, he left Gotland on the right[3],and soon afterwards Zeeland likewise, together with the otherislands which had been the habitation of the Angles before theywent to England, while those which belonged to Denmark were onhis left for two days. Sciringes-heal, therefore, is consequentlyin Sweden, at the entrance of the Gulf of Bothnia, which runs upinto the land northwards, just on that spot where the Baltic,after having passed Zeeland, spreads into a wide gulf, extendingseveral hundred miles into the land. Just in this place I findthe Svia-Sciaeren, or Swedish Scares, a cluster of littleislands, surrounded by rocks. Heal, in the northern languages,signifies a port, as in such places a ship might be kept insafety. Sciringes-heal, therefore, was "the harbour of theScares," and was probably at the entrance of the gulf of Bothnia,and consequently where Stockholm now is; and the tract of landwhere these Scares lay, towards the sea, was the Scarunga of PaulWarenfried.

[3] Not surely on going southwards, but after he hadagain turned to the northwards, after doubling the southern pointof Sweden.--E.

The port of Hasthum has occasioned much difficulty to thecommentators, as well as that of Sciringes-heal; but all haveagreed that it must be Sleswic, as this latter is called Haithaby Ethelwerd the Anglo-Saxon. A Norwegian poet gives it the nameof Heythabae, others call it Heydaboe, and Adam of BremenHeidaba; and this, in their opinion, is precisely the same withHaethum. It appears to me, however, that the difference betweenthe words Haethaby and Hasthum, are by no means soinconsiderable. And I think the situation of Sleswic does not atall accord with the descriptions which are given of Haethum byOhthere and Wulfstan. Indeed, if Sleswic be Haethum, I mustconfess, that I cannot in the least comprehend the course of thevoyages of these ancient navigators. Ohthere tells us, that insailing from Sciringes-heal to Haethum, he had Denmark to theleft, and the open sea, for the space of three days, to theright; but that, for two days before he reached Haethum, he hadGotland and Zeeland to the right, and the islands which belong toDenmark to the left. If he had gone to Sleswic, he must havefound all the Danish islands on his right hand, and not onebesides Femeren on his left. This being considered, I ask how itis possible, consistent with his own description of the voyage,that the situation of Sleswic can be made to correspond withHaethum? As, in the district of Aarhuus in Jutland, there is anextensive track of land called Alheide, which is in fact a heath,I shall take the liberty to suppose, that the town, in the ninthcentury, lay higher up towards Al-heide, or All-heath; for thetown of Aar-huus is new, and its name signifies in EnglishOar-house. The old town, therefore, may have been calledAl-haethum, or Haethum; so, that if Ohthere set out fromStockholm for this place, Gotland was on his right hand[4], andso was Zealand. And as he sailed between Zealand and Funen, orFyen, all the Danish islands were on his left hand, and he hadthe wide sea, that is, the Schager-rack, and Cattegat to theright. Farther, when Wulfsten went from Haethum, or Aarhuus toTruso, he had Weonothland, that is Funen, Fionia, or Fyen to hisright; and to the left were, Langeland, Laeland, Falster, andSconeg; together with Bornholm, Bleking, Moehre, Oeland, andGotland. But Wendenland remained on his right, all the way to themouth of the Vistula.

[4] This is certainly true during the latter part ofhis voyage, after turning round the south end of Sweden, andstanding again to the northward, between Zealand and Fyen; but incoasting down the shore of Sweden to the south, he must have leftGotland to the left,--E.

SECTION IV.

Voyage of Wulfstan in the Baltic as related toAlfred[1].

[1] Alfred's Orosius, by Barrington, p. 16.Langebeck, Scrip. Dan. II. 118- 123. Wulfstan appears to havebeen a Dane, who had probably become acquainted with Ohthere,during his maritime expeditions, and had gone with him to residein England.--Forst.

Wulfstan said that he sailed from Haethum to Truso[2] in sevendays and nights, the ship being under sail all the time.Weonothland[3] was on his right; but Langaland, Laeland, Falster,and Sconeg, were on the left, all of which belong toDene-mearkan[4]. Burgendaland[5] also, which has a king of itsown, was on the left. After leaving Burgendaland, the islands ofBecinga-eg, Meore, Eowland, and Gotland, were on the left, all ofwhich belong to Sueon[6], and Weonodland[7] was all the way onthe right to the mouth of the Wisle[8]. This is a very largeriver, and near it Witland[9], and Weonodland are situated; theformer of which belongs to Estum, and the Wisle does not runthrough Weonodland, but through Estmere[10], which lake isfifteen miles broad. Then runs the Ilfing[11] from the eastwardsinto Est-mere, on the banks of which is Truso. The Ilfing flowsfrom Est-land into the Est-mere from the east, and the Wislethrough Weonodland from the south. The Ilfing, having joined theWisle, takes its name, and runs to the west of Estmere, andnorthward into the sea, where it is called Wisle-mouth[12].

[2] There is a lake still called Truso or Drausen,between Elbing and Prussian Holland, from which, probably, thetown here mentioned, which stood on the Frisch-haf, took itsname.--Forst.

[3] It is necessary to distinguish accurately betweenWeonothland, which is probably Fuehnen, Funen, or Fionio, nowcalled Fyen; and Weonodland or Winodland, afterwardsWendenland.--Forst.

[4] Denmark obviously, called simply Dene, in thevoyages of Ohthere.--E.

[5] Probably Bornholm.--E.

[6] Called Sueoland in the voyages of Ohthere, isassuredly Sweden, to which all these islands belong. Becinga-eg,is certainly Bleking; the l being omitted intranscription, called an island by mistake. Meore is indisputablythe upper and lower Moehre in Smoland; Eowland is Oeland; andGotland is doubtless the modern isle of that name.--Forst.

[7] Weonodland, or Winodland, extends to the mouth ofthe Vistula; and is obviously a peculiar and independent country,totally different from Weonothland, belonging toDenmark.--Forst.

[8] Wisle, or Wisla, is the Sclavonian orthographyfor the Vistula, called Weichsel by the Germans, and Weissel bythe Prussians.--Forst.

[9] Witland is a district of Samland in Prussia. Ithad this name of Witland at the time of the crusades of theGermans against Prussia. The word Wit-land, is a translation ofthe native term Baltikka, or the white land, now applied to theBaltic Sea.--Forst.

[10] Est-mere, a lake of fresh water, into which theElbing and Vistula empty themselves; now called Frisch-haf, orthe fresh water sea. --Forst.

[11] This is undoubtedly the Elbing which flows fromlake Drausen, or Truso, and joins, by one of its branches, thatarm of the Vistula which is called Neugat orNogat.--Forst.

[12] The Ilfing, or Elbing, comes out of Esthonia,yet not from the east, as here said by Alfred, but from thesouth; except, indeed, he mean that arm of the Elbing which runsinto the Nogat, or eastern arm of the Vistula. But the Vistulacomes out of Wendenland, called Weonodland in the text, from thesouth; and the two rivers discharge themselves into theFrisch-haf, which stretches from west to north, or in anorth-east direction; and at Pilau, goes northwards into the sea.It is certainly possible that this entrance may have beenformerly called Wisle-mund, or the mouth of the Vistula, as wellas the western mouth of that river.--Forst.

This concession is not necessary to the truth of Wulfstan andAlfred. There is a cross branch from Elbing, which joins theNogat and Vistula proper; and which is probably meant in thetext, where the Ilfing and Wisle, united, are said to run to thewest of Est-mere, or the haf, and then north, into the sea atWisle-mund.--E.

Est-land is a large track of country, having many towns, ineach of which there is a king. It produces a great quantity ofhoney, and has abundance of fish. The kings, and other rich men,drink mares milk, while the poor people and slaves use onlymead[13]. They have many contests among themselves; and thepeople of Estum brew no ale, as they have mead in profusion[14].There is also a particular custom observed by this nation; that,when any one dies, the body remains unburnt, with the relationsand friends, for a month or two; and the bodies of kings andnobles remain longer, according to their respective wealth,sometimes for half a year, during all which time it is kept inthe house, and drinking and sports continue until the body isconsumed[15]. When the body is carried to the funeral pile, thesubstance of the deceased, which yet remains, after the sportsand drinking bouts, is divided into five or six heaps, or more,according to its value. These heaps are placed at the distance ofa mile from each other; the largest heap at the greatest distancefrom the town, and the lesser heaps gradually diminishing, sothat the smallest heap is nearest to the town where the dead bodylies. Then all are summoned who have fleet horses, within thedistance of five or six miles around, and they all strive for thesubstance of the dead person. He who has the swiftest horse,gains the most distant and largest heap, and the others, in justproportion, till the whole is won; then every one takes away hisshare, as his own property: and owing to this custom, swifthorses are in great request, and extremely dear. When the wealthof the deceased has been thus exhausted, the body is taken fromthe house and burnt, together with the dead man's weapons andclothes; and generally, they expend the whole wealth of thedeceased, by keeping the body so long in the house before it isburnt, and by these heaps which are carried off by strangers. Itis the custom with the Estum to burn the bodies of all theinhabitants; and if any one can find a single bone unconsumed, itis a cause of great offence. These people, also, have the meansof producing a very severe cold; by which, the dead bodycontinues so long above ground without putrefying; and by meansof which, if any one sets a vessel of ale or water in the place,they contrive that the liquor shall be frozen either in winter orsummer[16].

[13] This circ*mstance is singular; yet may beexplained from the custom of the Tartars. The mares milk, drankby the kings and rich men, was certainly prepared into cosmos, orkumyss, the favourite beverage of the great; while mead, a muchinferior liquor in their estimation, was left to the lowerorders.--E.

[14] Mead was called Medo in Anglo-Saxon, inLithuanian Middus, in Polish Miod, in Russian Méd, inGerman Meth, in old English Metheglin: perhaps all these are fromthe Greek verb [Greek: methuo], to intoxicate. Alfred naturallyobserves, that these drinking-bouts produced many frays; andnotices the reason of the Estum or Esthonians brewing no ale,because they had abundance of mead.--Forst.

[15] In a treaty between the Teutonic knights, andthe newly converted Prussians, the latter engaged never to burntheir dead, nor to bury them with their horses, arms, clothes,and valuables.--Forst.

[16] This power of producing cold in summer, so muchadmired by Wulfstan and Alfred, was probably the effect of a goodice-cellar, which every Prussian of condition had in, or near hishouse.--Forst.

SECTION IV.

Voyage of Sighelm and Athelstan to India, in the reign ofAlfred King of England, in 883[1].

[1] Harris, I. 873. Hakluyt, V. II. 38.

Though containing no important information, it wereunpardonable in an English collection of voyages and travels, toomit the scanty notice which remains on record, respecting avoyage by two Englishmen to India, at so early a period. All thatis said of this singular incident in the Saxon Chronicle, is[2],"In the year 883, Alfred sent Sighelm and Athelstan to Rome, andlikewise to the shrine of Saints Thomas and Bartholomew,in India, with the alms which he had vowed." [Bartholomew was themessenger of Christ in India, the extremity of the wholeearth.]--The words printed in Italics are added intranslating, by the present editor, to complete the obvioussense. Those within brackets, are contained in one MS. Codex ofthe Saxon Chronicle, in addition to what was considered the mostauthentic text by Bishop Gibson, and are obviously a note orcommentary, afterwards adopted into the text intranscription.

[2] Chron. Sax. Ed. Gibson, p. 86.

This short, yet clear declaration, of the actual voyage, hasbeen extended by succeeding writers, who attribute the wholemerit to Sighelm, omitting all mention of Athelstan, hisco-adjutor in the holy mission. The first member of thesubsequent paraphrase of the Saxon Chronicle, by Harris, thoughunauthorized, is yet necessarily true, as Alfred could not havesent messengers to a shrine, of which he did not know theexistence. For the success of the voyage, the safe return, thepromotion of Sighelm, and his bequest, the original record givesno authority, although that is the obvious foundation of thestory, to which Aserus has no allusion in his life of Alfred.

"In the year 883, Alfred, King of England, hearing that thereexisted a Christian church in the Indies, dedicated to the memoryof St Thomas and St Bartholomew, dispatched one Sighelm, orSithelm, a favourite ecclesiastic of his court, to carry hisroyal alms to that distant shrine. Sighelm successfully executedthe honourable commission with which he had been entrusted, andreturned in safety into England. After his return, he waspromoted to the bishoprick of Sherburn, or Shireburn, inDorsetshire; and it is recorded, that he left at his decease, inthe treasury of that church, sundry spices and jewels, which hehad brought with him from the Indies."

Of this voyage, William of Malmsbury makes twice mention; oncein the fourth chapter of his second book, De Gestis RegumAnglorum; and secondly, in the second book of his work; entitled,De Gestis Pontificum Anglorum; and in the chapter devoted to theBishops of Shireburn, Salisbury, and Winchester, both of whichare here added, although the only authority for the story iscontained in what has been already given from the SaxonChronicle[3].

[3] Hakluyt, II. 88.

"King Alfred being addicted to giving of alms, confirmed theprivileges which his father had granted to the churches, and sentmany gifts beyond seas, to Rome, and to St Thomas in India. Hismessenger in this business was Sighelm, bishop of Sherburn, who,with great prosperity, which is much to be wondered at in thisage, penetrated into India; whence he brought on his return,splendid exotic gems, and aromatic liquors, of which the soil ofthat region is prolific."

"Sighelm having gone beyond seas, charged with alms from theking, even penetrated, with wonderful prosperity, to Saint Thomasin India, a thing much to be admired in this age; and broughtthence, on his return, certain foreign kinds of precious stoneswhich abound in that region; some of which are yet to be seen inthe monuments of his church."

In the foregoing accounts of the voyage of Sighelm, from thefirst notice in the Saxon Chronicle, through the additions ofMalmsbury, and the amplified paraphrase by Harris, we have aninstance of the manner in which ingenious men permit themselvesto blend their own imaginations with original record, superaddingutterly groundless circ*mstances, and fancied conceptions, to theplain historical facts. Thus a motely rhetorical tissue of realincident and downright fable is imposed upon the world, whicheach successive author continually improves into deeperfalsehood. We have here likewise an instance of the way in whichancient manuscripts, first illustrated by commentaries, becameinterpolated, by successive transcribers adopting thoseillustrations into the text; and how many fabricators of story,first misled by these additaments, and afterwards misleading thepublic through a vain desire of producing a morsel of eloquence,although continually quoting original and contemporaryauthorities, have acquired the undeserved fame of excellenthistorians, while a multitude of the incidents, which theyrelate, have no foundations whatever in the truth of record. Heonly, who has diligently and faithfully laboured through originalrecords, and contemporary writers, honestly endeavouring tocompose the authentic history of an interesting period, and hascarefully compared, in his progress, the flippant worse thaninaccuracies of writers he has been taught to consider asmasterly historians, can form an adequate estimate of theenormity and frequency of this tendency to romance. The immediatesubject of these observations is slight and trivial; but the evilitself is wide-spread and important, and deserves severereprehension, as many portions of our national history have beenstrangely disfigured by such indefensible practices.

SECTION V.

Travels of John Erigena to Athens, in the NinthCentury[1].

[1] Hakluyt, II. 38.

John Erigena, of the British Nation, descended from nobleprogenitors, and born in the town of St. Davids in Wales; whilethe English were oppressed by the cruel wars and ravages of theDanes, and the whole land was in confusion, undertook a longjourney to Athens, and there spent many years in the study of theGrecian, Chaldean, and Arabian literature. He there frequentedall the places and schools of the philosophers, and even visitedthe oracle of the sun, which Esculapius had constructed forhimself. Having accomplished the object of his travels, hereturned through Italy and France; where, for his extraordinarylearning, he was much favoured by Charles the Bald, andafterwards by Lewis the Stammerer. He translated into Latin, in858, the books of Dionysius the Areopagite, concerning theHeavenly Hierarchy, then sent from Constantinople. Goingafterwards into Britain, he became preceptor to Alfred, King ofEngland, and his children; and, at the request of that prince, heemployed his leisure in translating the Morals of Aristotle, andhis book called the Secret of Secrets, or of the Right Governmentof Princes, into Chaldaic, Arabic, and Latin; certainly a mostexquisite undertaking. At last, being in the abbey of Malmsbury,where he had gone for his recreation, in the year 884, andreading to certain evil-disposed disciples, they put him todeath.

SECTION VI.

Geography of the Known World, in the Ninth Century asdescribed by King Alfred[1].

[1] Anglo-Saxon version from Orosius, by AElfred theGreat, with an English translation, by Daines Barrington, 8vo.London, 1773. Discoveries in the North, 54.

INTRODUCTION.

Though not strictly conformable to our plan, as being neithera journey or voyage, it yet seemed incumbent to present ourreaders with this curious British production of the great AlfredKing of England, which gives a singular record of thegeographical knowledge of the world in the ninth century. It wasoriginally written by Orosius, a Spanish Christian, whoflourished in the end of the fourth and beginning of the fifthcentury, and who published a kind of History of the World, downto A. D. 416, which remained in good repute among the learnedtill about an hundred years ago, but is now much neglected. Neara thousand years ago, the work of Orosius was translated intoAnglo-Saxon, by Alfred King of England, but, with great freedomand much licence, often using his author merely as a foundationfor a paraphrase; omitting most of the introductory chapters toeach book, sometimes leaving out considerable passages, and ofteninserting new matter. This is peculiarly the case with the firstchapter of the first book, containing the whole of the geography,and which is all that has any reference to the nature of ourwork.

The Honourable Daines Barrington, who published theAnglo-Saxon version, with an English translation, informs us thatthe original MS. is in the Cotton Library, Tiberius I.,and is supposed to have been written in the ninth or tenthcentury; but that, in making his translation, he used atranscript, made by Mr Elstob, occasionally collated with theCotton MS. and with some other transcripts. But, beforepublishing a work of such curiosity and interest, he ought tohave made sure of possessing a perfect copy, by the mostscrupulous comparison of his transcript with the original MS.

In the following republication of the geographical chapter,much care has been taken to correct errors, chiefly in regard todirection, as east, west, north, and south, are often usedinterchangeably in the translation by Mr Barrington. Most of thenotes are from that edition, or from J.R. Forster, who reprintedso much of this chapter as referred to northern geography, andwho appears to have studied that part of the subject with greatcare.

As a specimen of the Anglo-Saxon, or the language of Englandnear a thousand years ago, we have given the first sentence ofthis geographical chapter in the ordinary Roman letters, with aliteral translation.

Anglo-Saxon.

Ure yldran calne thysne ymbhwyrft thyses middangeardes, cwaethOrosius, swa swa Oceanus ymbligeth utan, wone man garsecg hatath,on threo todaeldon.

Literal Translation

Our elders have divided all of this middle-earth, quothOrosius, which Oceanus surrounds, which men callethgarsecg into three deals.

Geography of Alfred.

§ 1. According to Orosius, our ancestors divided thewhole world which is surrounded by the ocean, which we callgarsecg[2], into three parts, and they named thesedivisions Asia, Europe, and Africa; though some authors onlyadmit of two parts, Asia and Europe. Asia is bounded to thesouthward, northward, and eastward by the ocean, and thus dividesall our part of this earth from that which is to the east. On thenorth, Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais or Don; and inthe south, after passing the Mediterranean[3] sea, Asia andAfrica join to the westward of Alexandria[4].

[2] This word is always employed by Alfred to denotethe ocean, while smaller portions are uniformly called saein the singular, saes in the plural.--Barr

[3] Called Wenadel sea in the Anglo-Saxon original;probably because it had been crossed by the Vandals or Wends, ingoing from Spain to the conquest of Africa.--E.

[4] In the translation by Barrington, this sentenceis quite unintelligible. "All to the northward is Asia, and tothe southward Europe and Asia are separated by the Tanais; thensouth of this same river (along the Mediterranean, and west ofAlexandria) Europe and Asia join."--E.

§ 2. Europe begins, as I have said before, at the Tanais,which has its source in the northern parts of the Ripheanmountains[5], which are near the Sarmatic[6] ocean; and thisriver then runs directly south, on the west side of Alexander'stemples, to the nation of the Russians[7], where it runs into thefen called Maeotis, and thence it issues eastwards with a greatstream, near the town called Theodosia, into the Euxine. Thenbecoming narrow for a considerable track, it passes byConstantinople, and thence into the Wendel sea, or Mediterranean.The south-west end of Europe is in Ispania or Spain, where it isbounded by the ocean; but the Mediterranean almost closes at theislands called Gades, where stand the pillars of Hercules.To the westward of this same Mediterranean isScotland[8].

[5] Riffing, in the Anglo-Saxon.--E.

[6] Sermondisc in the Anglo-Saxon, Sarmaticus inOrosius.--E.

[7] Rochouasco in Anglo-Saxon, Roxolani inOrosius.--E.

[8] Certainly here put for Ireland.--E.

§ 3. Asia and Africa are divided by Alexandria, a city ofEgypt; and that country is bounded on the west by the river Nile,and then by Ethiopia to the south, which reaches quite to thesouthern ocean. The northern boundary of Africa is theMediterranean sea all the way westwards, to where it is dividedfrom the ocean by the pillars of Hercules; and the true westernboundaries of Africa are the mountains called Atlas and theFortunate Islands. Having thus shortly mentioned the threedivisions of this earth, I shall now state how those are boundedby land and water.

§ 4. Opposite to the middle of the eastern part of Asia,the river Ganges empties itself into the sea, whilst the Indianocean is to the southwards, in which is the port ofCaligardamana. To the south-east of that port is the island ofDeprobane[9]. To the north of the mouths of the Ganges, wheremount Caucasus ends, is the port of Samera; and to the north ofthis port are the mouths of the river called Corogorre, in theocean called Sericus. Now, these are the boundaries of India:Mount Caucasus is to the north, the river Indus to the west, theRed Sea[10] to the south, and the ocean to the east. In this landof India there are forty-four nations, besides the island ofTaprobana or Ceylon, in which there are ten boroughs; andalso many others which are situated on the banks of the Indus,and lie all to the westward of India. Betwixt this river Indus,and another to the west called Tigris, both of which emptythemselves into the Red Sea[11], are the countries of Orocassia,Parthia, Asilia, Pasitha, and Media, though some writers call thewhole of this land Media or Assyria[12]. The fields are muchparched by the sun[13], and the roads are very hard and stony.The northern boundary of this land is Mount Caucasus, and thesouthern is the Red Sea. In this land there are two great rivers,the Hystaspes and Arbis, and twenty-two nations, though the wholehas the general name of Parthia. To the westwards, Babilonia,Chaldea, and Mesopotamia are between the rivers Tigris andEuphrates. Within this country there are twenty-eight nations,the northern boundary being Mount Caucasus, and the Red Sea tothe south. Along the Red Sea, and at its northern angle, areArabia, Sabaea, and Eudomane, or Idumea. Beyond the riverEuphrates, quite westward to the Mediterranean, and northward toMount Taurus, even into Armenia, and southward to near Egypt, aremany countries, namely Comagene, Phenicia, Damascena, Coelle,Moab, Ammon, Idumea, Judea, Palestine, and Sarracene, all ofwhich are comprehended under the general name of Syria. To thenorth of Syria are the hills called Taurus, and to the north ofthese are Capadocia and Armenia, the former being to the westwardof the latter; and to the westward of Capadocia is the countrycalled the lesser Asia. To the north of Capadocia is the plaincalled Temisere, and betwixt Capadocia and lesser Asia areCilicia and Isauria. Lesser Asia is entirely surrounded by saltwater, except to the eastward; having the Euxine on the north,the Propontis and Hellespont on the west, and the Mediterraneanon the south. In it is the high mountain of Olympus.

[9] Taprobana, Serendib, or Ceylon.--E.

[10] By the Red Sea must be here meant that whichextends between the peninsula of India and Africa, called theErithrean Sea in the Periplus of Nearchus.--E.

[11] The Persian gulf is here assumed as a part ofthe Red Sea.--E.

[12] He is here obviously enumerating the divisionsof the latter Persian empire. Orocassia is certainly theArachosia of the ancients; Asilia and Pasitha may be Assyria andproper Persia.--E.

[13] The Saxon word is beorhta or bright,which I have ventured to translate parched by the sun, asthis signification agrees well with thecontext.--Barr.

§ 5. To the northward of hither Egypt isPalestine, to the eastwards the land of the Sarracens, to thewest is Libia, and to the south the mountain called Climax. Thehead of the Nile is near the cliffs of the Red Sea, thoughsome say it is in the western part of Africa, near Mount Atlas,whence it flows over a large track of land, till it sinks; afterwhich, it proceeds in its course, till it becomes a great sea, orwide river[14]. The spot where the river takes its rise is calledby some Nuchal, and by others Dara. Hence, for some distance fromthe wider part, before[l5] it rises from the sand, it runswestward to Ethiopia, where it is called Jon, till it reaches theeastern part, where it becomes a wide river[16], and then itsinks again into the earth; after which it appears again oppositeto the cliffs of the Red Sea, as I mentioned before, and fromthis place it is called the Nile. Then running from thencewestwards, it divides its stream round an island calledMeroe[17]; then running to the northward, it empties itself intothe Mediterranean. There, in the winter season, the current atit* mouth is opposed by the north winds, so that the river isspread all over the land of Egypt;[l8] and by the rich earthwhich it deposits, it fertilizes the whole country. Thefarther Egypt lies along the southern part of the Red Sea,and to the east is the ocean. To the west is the hitherEgypt, and in the two Egypts there are twenty-four nations.

[14] The true Niger, running from the westwards tillit loses itself in the sands of Wangara, seems here alluded to;and the Bahr el Abiad, or Western Nile, is supposed to be itscontinuation, rising again out of the sand.--E.

[15] This ought certainly to be after, andseems to allude to the Bahr el Abiad.--E.

[16] Literally a greatsea.--Barr.

[17] This is a mistake, as it only takes a wide turnto the west in Dongola, around what has been falsely called theIsle of Meroe. The cliffs of the Red Sea seem to imply themountains of Nubia, and the wide sea may be the lake ofDembea.--E.

[18] A strange attempt to account for the regularoverflow of the Nile.--E.

§ 6. Having before given an account of the north part ofAsia, I shall now speak of its southern parts. I have beforementioned that Mount Caucasus is to the north of India, beginningeastwards on the ocean, and running due west, till it join theArmenian mountains, which the inhabitants call Parcoatrae, fromwhich the Euphrates takes its rise; and from the Parcoatrianmountains mount Taurus runs due west, quite to Cilicia. To thenorth of these mountains, quite to the ocean which environs thenorth east end of the earth, where the river Bore empties itselfinto the ocean, and from thence westwards to the Caspian sea,which extends to Mount Caucasus, all the land is called OldScythia, or Hircania. In this country there are forty-threenations, all situate at great distances from each other, onaccount of the barrenness of the soil[19]. Then to the westwardof the Caspian unto the Tanais or Don, and the Palus Maeotis,thence south to Mount Taurus[20], and north to the ocean, is allScythia, and is divided among thirty-two nations. The country onthe east side of the Tanais is inhabited by a nation called theAlboari in the Latin tongue, which we now call Liobene. Thus haveI shortly stated the boundaries of Asia, and shall now statethose of Europe, as far as we are informed concerning them.

[19] This account of the boundaries of Old Scythia isextremely vague. It seems to imply an eastern boundary by animaginary river Bore, that the Caspian is the western, thenorthern ocean on the north, and Mount Caucasus on thesouth.--E.

[20] In the translation by Barrington, this portionof Scythia is strangely said to extend south to theMediterranean; the interpolation surely of some ignoranttranscriber, who perhaps changed the Euxine or Caspian sea intothe Mediterranean.--E.

§ 7. From the Tanais westwards to the Rhine, which takesits rise in the Alps, and runs northward, till it falls into thatbranch of the ocean which surrounds Bryttannia, and southwardfrom the Tanais to the Donua or Danube, whose source is near thatof the Rhine, and which runs to the northward of Greece, till itempties itself into the Euxine[21], and north even to that partof the ocean which is called the Cwen sea[22], there aremany nations; and the whole of this extensive country is calledGermany. Hence to the north of the source of the Danube, and tothe east of the Rhine are the people called eastern Franks[23].To the south of them are the Swaepas[24]. On the oppositebanks of the Danube, and to the south and east, are the peoplecalled Baegth-ware[25], in that part which is calledRegnes-burh[26]. Due east from them are the Beme[27]. Tothe north-east the Thyringas[28]. To the north of these are theOld Seaxan[29]. To the north-west of these are the Frysan[30];and to the west of Old Saxony is the mouth of theAelfe or Elbe, as also Frysan or Friesland. Promhence to the north-west is that land which is calledAngle, with Sellinde, and some other parts ofDene[31]. To the north is Apdrede[32], and to thenorth-east the Wolds[33], which are called AEfeldan[34].From hence eastwards is Wineda-land[35], otherwise calledSysyle[36]. To the south-west, at some distance, is theMacroaro[37], and these have to the west the Thyringas andBehemas, as also part of the Baegthware, all of whom have beenalready mentioned. And to the south, on the other side of theDonua or Danube, is the country called Carendrae[38].

[21] Called by mistake, or erroneous transcription,Wendel sea, or Mediterranean in the text andtranslation.--E.

[22] The Cwen sea is the White sea, or sea ofArchangel. The Kwen or Cwen nation, was that now calledFinlanders, from whom that sea received this ancientappellation.--Forst.

[23] East Francan in the original. The eastern Franksdwelt in that part of Germany between the Rhine and the Sala, inthe north reaching to the Ruhre and Cassel, and in the south,almost to the Necker; according to Eginhard, inhabiting fromSaxony to the Danube. They were called east Franks to distinguishthem from that other part of the nation which inhabited ancientGaul, and Franconia continues to preserve theirname.--Forst.

[24] Swaepas, or Suevae, who formed part of theAllemanic confederacy, and afterwards gave their name of Swabesto an extensive nation, in whose bounds modern Swabia is stillsituated.--Forst.

[25] The Bavarians, who were the remnant of the Boiior Baeghten, who escaped from the exterminating sword of theSuevi.--Forst.

[26] This may have been the province in whichRegens-bergh or Ratisbon is still situated.--Forst.

[27] These were undoubtedly the Bohemians, calledafterwards Behemas by our royal geographer. They had theirappellation from Boier-heim, or the dwelling place of the Boii,who were exterminated by the Suevi. --Forst.

[28] The Thuringians, at one time so powerful, thattheir king was able to engage in war against the king of theFranks. Thuringia is still a well known district inGermany.--Forst.

[29] The Old Saxons inhabited the country stillcalled Old Sassen, or Old Saxony, Halsatia in Latin, which hasdegenerated into Holstein. --Forst.

[30] These Frysae were afterwards confined byCharlemain to the country between the Weser and Elbe, to whichthey gave the name of Friesland. --Forst.

[31] That is to the north-east of Old Saxony, wherethe Angles, confederates of the Saxon conquerors of Britain, andwho gave their name to the English nation, and England orAngle-land, formerly resided. But they likewise appear to haveoccupied some of the islands in the Baltic. Sillend is certainlythe Danish island of Zeeland. Dene is Denmark in its most limitedsense.--Forst.

[32] These are the Obotrites, a Venedic nation,settled in Mecklenburgh, who are called, a little farther on, theAfdrede. They were not, however, to the north-east of OldSaxony, but rather to the eastwards. Perhaps the copyist insertednorth instead of east, or rather we ought to read thus: "To thenorth-east is Apdrede, and to the north theWolds."--Forst.

[33] The word here translated Wolds on theauthority of Daines Barrington, is in the original, Wylte;but whether it refers to the wild or barren state of thecountry, or the name of a people, it is difficult to say. Therewere a people named Wilzi in those parts, but J. R. Forster isdisposed to believe, that Alfred refers here to the Wends orVandals, who lived on the Havel, and were called Hevelli. But ifthey are meant, we must correct the text from north-east tosouth-east, for such is the situation of Havel-land, with respectto Old Saxony.--Forst.

[34] AEfeldan are, as King Alfred calls them, Woldsor Wilds; as there still are in the middle of Jutland, large highmoors, covered only with heath.--Forst.

[35] Wineda-land, the land of the Wends, Vandals, orWendian Scalvi in Mecklenburg and Pomerania; so called fromWanda or Woda, signifying the sea or water. Theywere likewise called Pomeranians for the same reason, from pomoriu, or the people by the sea side. --Forst.

[36] In this Alfred seems to have committed amistake, or to have made too great a leap. There is a Syssel,however, in the country of the Wends, on the Baltic, whichconnects them with the Moravians, or rather with the Delamensan,of whom mention is made afterwards.--Forst.

[37] The Moravians, so called from the river Morava,at that time a powerful kingdom, governed by Swatopluk, and ofmuch greater extent than modern Moravia.--Forst.

[38] Carendre must be Carinthia, or the country ofthe Carenders or Centani, which then included Austria andStyria.--Forst.

§ 8. Southwards, towards and along the mountains whichare called the Alps, are the boundaries of the Baegthware and ofthe Swaefas already mentioned; and then to the eastwards of theCarendrae country, and beyond the Waste[39], is Pulgara-land orBulgaria[40]. To the east is Greca-land[41] or Greece; and to theeast of the Moroaro or Moravians, is Wisle-land[42]; and to theeast of that is Datia, though it formerly belonged to theGottan[43] or Goths. To the north-east of the Moroara orMoravians, are the Delamensen[44]. East of the Delamensen are theHorithi[45]; and north of the Delamensen are the Surpe[46]; tothe west also are the Syssele[47]. To the north of the Horithi isMaegtha-land[48], and north of Maegtha-land is Sermende[49],quite to the Riffin[50], or the Riphean mountains.

[39] Barrington has erroneously translated this, "tothe eastward of Carendre country, and beyond the west partis Bulgaria." But in the original Anglo-Saxon, it is beyondthe wastes, or desert, which had been occasioned by thedevastations of Charlemain in the country of theAvari.--Forst.

[40] This is the extensive kingdom of Bulgaria ofthese times, comprising modern Bulgaria and Wallachia, with partof Moldavia and Bessarabia. The Bulgarians were probably aTurkish tribe, dwelling beyond the Wolga, in the country nowcalled Casan, deriving their name from Bolgar, theircapital.--Forst.

Forster ought to have added, that the latter country was longcalled greater Bulgaria, and the former, or thePulgara-land of the text, lesser Bulgaria.--E.

[41] The Greek empire ofConstantinople.--E.

[42] The country on the Wisle or Vistula, being greatand little Poland. --Forst.

[43] These for some time inhabited Dacia, and, beingfamous in history, Alfred was willing at least to mention one oftheir residences. --Forst.

[44] The Delamensen, or Daleminzen of the middle agewriters, sometimes called Dalmatians by mistake, or to shew theirerudition, were situated near Lommatsch, or around Meissen orMisnia, on both sides of the Elbe.--Forst.

[45] These must have been a Scalvonian people ortribe, now unknown, and perhaps inhabited near Gorlitz, or nearQuarlitz, not far from great Glogau--Forst.

[46] The Sorbi, Sirbi, and Serbii, of old writers,are the Sorbian Sclavons; and the modern Wends or Vandals ofLusatia, still call themselves Sserbs orSsorbs.--Forst.

[47] These must have been another tribe of Sclavonsabout Seuselig, to the westward of the Sorbs of lowerLusatia.--Forst.

[48] Perhaps the duchy of Mazovia, called Magaw orMazaw-land in ancient writers. Or perhaps it is wrong spelt forWastaland or the Waste.--Forst.

[49] Sermende is the mutilated and disguised name ofSarmatia, which did not exist under that name in the time ofAlfred, but which he inserted on the authority of his originalauthor Orosius.--Forst.

[50] A mere corruption of the montes Riphaei orRiphean mountains of Orosius; and Alfred seems here to have gotbeyond his knowledge, copying merely fromOrosius.--Forst.

§ 9. To the south-west of Dene or Denmark, formerlymentioned, is that arm of the ocean which surrounds Brittania,and to the north is that arm which is called theOstsea[51] or East sea; to the east and north are thenorth Dene[52], or North Danes, both on the continent and on theislands. To the east are the Afdrede[53]. To the south is themouth of the AElfe or Elbe, and some part of OldSeaxna[54] or Old Saxony. The North Dene have to the norththat arm of the sea which is called the East sea, and to the eastis the nation of the Osti[55], and the Afdrede, or Obotrites, tothe south. The Osti have to the north of them that same arm ofthe sea, or the Baltic, and so have the Winedas and theBurgendas[56]. Still more to the south is Haefeldan[57]. TheBurgendas have this same arm of the sea to the west, and theSweon[58] to the north. To the east are the Sermende, to thesouth the Surfe[59]. The Sweons have to the south the arm of thesea called Ost, and to the north, over the wastes, isCwenland[60], to the north-west are the Scride-finnas[61], andthe North-men[62] are to the west[63].

[51] The Ost sea of Alfred comprehends what are nowcalled the Scaggerrack, Catte-gatt, the Sound, the two Belts, andthe Baltic, which our mariners still call the EastSea.--Forst.

[52] That is, both inhabiting North Jutland and theislands of Funen, Zeeland, Langland, Laland, andFalster.--Forst.

[53] Formerly called Apdrede, and explained to be theObotrites.--E.

[54] Alluding, doubtless, to the country from whencethe Saxons who inhabited England had come ofold.--E.

[55] This is the same nation called Estum in thevoyage of Wulfstan, who lived east of the mouth of the Wisle orVistula, along the Baltic, and who are mentioned by Tacitus underthe name of Estii. When the Hanseatic league existed, they werecalled Osterlings or Easterlings, or Ost-men, and their countryEst-land, Ostland, or Eastland, which still adheres to thenorthernmost part of Livonia, now calledEst-land.--Forst.

[56] The Burgendas certainly inhabited the island ofBorn-holm, called from them Borgenda-holm, or island of theBorgendas, gradually corrupted to Borgend-holm, Bergen-holm,Born-holm. In the voyage of Wulfstan they are plainly describedas occupying this situation.--Forst.

[57] Called formerly AEfelden, a nation who lived onthe Havel, and were, therefore, named Hevelli or Haeveldi, andwere a Wendick or Vandal tribe.--Forst.

[58] These are the Sviones of Tacitus. Jornandescalls them Swethans, and they are certainly the ancestors of theSwedes.--Forst.

[59] This short passage in the original Anglo-Saxonis entirely omitted by Barrington. Though Forster has insertedthese Surfe in his map, somewhere about the duchy of Magdeburg,he gives no explanation or illustration of them in his numerousand learned notes on our royal geographer.--E.

[60] Already explained to be Finland on the Whitesea.--E.

[61] This is the same nation with the Finnas orLaplanders, mentioned in the voyage of Ohthere, so named becauseusing scriden, schreiten, or snowshoes. The Finnas orLaplanders were distinguished by the geographer of Ravenna intoScerde-fenos, and Rede-fenos, the Scride-finnas, and Ter-finnasof Alfred. So late as 1556, Richard Johnson, Hakluyt, ed. 1809.I. 316. mentions the Scrick-finnes as a wild people nearWardhus.--E.

[62] The North-men or Normans, are the Norwegians orinhabitants of Nor-land, Nord-land, orNorth-mana-land.--E.

[63] At this place Alfred introduces the voyages ofOhthere and Wulfstan, already given separately, in Sect. ii. andiii, of this chapter.--E.

§ 10. We shall now speak of Greca-land or Greece, whichlies south of the Danube. The Proponditis, or sea calledPropontis, is eastward of Constantinople; to the north ofthat city, an arm of the sea issues from the Euxine, and flowswestwards; to the north-west the mouths of theDanube empty themselves into the south-east part of theEuxine[64]. To the south and west of these mouths are the Maesi,a Greek nation; to the west are the Traci or Thracians, and tothe east the Macedonians. To the south, on the southern arm ofthe Egean sea, are Athens and Corinth, and to the south-west ofCorinth is Achaia, near the Mediterranean. All these countriesare inhabited by the Greeks. To the west of Achaia is Dalmatia,along the Mediterranean; and on the north side of that sea, tothe north of Dalmatia, is Bulgaria and Istria. To the south ofIstria is the Adriatic, to the west the Alps, and to the north,that desert which is between Carendan[65] and Bulgaria.

[64] Either the original or the translation is hereerroneous; it ought to run thus: "The Propontis iswestward of Constantinople; to the north-east of thatcity, the arm of the sea issues from the Euxine, and flowssouth-west; to the north the mouths of the Danubeempty themselves into the north-west parts of theEuxine."--E.

[65] Carinthia. The desert has been formerlymentioned as occasioned by the almost utter extirpation of theAvari by Charlemain, and was afterwards occupied by theMadschiari or Magiars, the ancestors of the presentHungarians.--Forst.

§ 11. Italy is of a great length from the north-west tothe south-east and is surrounded by the Mediterranean on everyside, except the north-west. At that end of it are the Alps,which begin from the Mediterranean, in the Narbonese country, andend in Dalmatia, to the east of the Adriatic sea. Opposite to theAlps, on the north, is Gallia-belgica, near which is theriver Rhine, which discharges itself into the Britanisca sea, andto the north, on the other side of this sea, is Brittannia[66].The land to the west of Ligore, Liguria, is AEquitania; tothe south of which is some part of Narbonense, to the south-westis Spain. To the south of Narbonense is the Mediterranean, wherethe Rhone empties itself into that sea, to the north of theProfent[67] sea. Opposite to the wastes is the nearer[68]part of Spain, to the northwest Aquitania, and the Wascan[69] tothe north. The Profent[67] sea hath to the north the Alps, to thesouth the Mediterranean, to the north-east the Burgundians, andto the West the Wascans or Gascons.

[66] Very considerable freedoms have been taken withthis sentence; as in Barrington's translation it is quiteunintelligible.--E.

[67] Profent and Profent sea, from the ProvinciaGallica, now Provence. --Forst.

[68] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence ofOrosius.--E.

[69] Gascony, called Wascan in the Teutonic or Saxonorthography and pronunciation. Thus the Saxons changed Gauls toWales, and the Gauls changed War-men into Guer-men, hence ourmodern English, Germans. --Forst.

§ 12. Spain is triangular, being surrounded by the sea onthree sides. The boundary to the south-west is opposite to theisland of Gades, Cadiz; that to the east is opposite to theNarbonense, and the third, to the north- west, is opposite toBrigantia, a town of Gallia, as also to Scotland[70], over an armof the sea, and opposite to the mouth of the Scene or Seine. Asfor that division of Spain which is farthest[71] from us,it has to the west the ocean, and the Mediterranean to the north,the south, and the east. This division of Spain has to the northAquitania, to the north-east Narbonense, and to the south theMediterranean.

[70] Scotland is here assuredly used to denoteIreland.--E.

[71] Probably in relation to Rome, the residence ofOrosius.--E.

§ 13. The island of Brittannia extends 800 miles inlength to the north-east, and is 200 miles broad. To the south ofit, on the other side of an arm of the sea, is Gallia-belgica. Tothe west of it, on the other side of another arm of the sea, isIbernia or Ireland, and to the north Orcadus[72]. Igbernia,Ibernia, Hibernia, or Ireland, which we call Scotland, issurrounded on every side by the ocean; and because it is nearerthe setting sun, the weather is milder than it is in Britain. Tothe north-west of Igbernia is the utmost land calledThila[73], which is known to few, on account of its verygreat distance.

[72] Alfred includes the whole island, now calledGreat Britain, under one denomination of Brittannia, taking nonotice whatever of any of its divisions. Orcadus isunquestionably Orcades, or the islands of Orkney andShetland.--E.

[73] The Thila or Thule of Alfred, from its directionin respect of Ireland, and its great distance, is obviouslyIceland.--E.

§ 14. Having mentioned the boundaries of Europe, I nowproceed to state those of Africa. Our ancestors considered thisas a third part of the world; not indeed that it contains so muchland as the others, because the Mediterranean cuts it, as itwere, in two, breaking in more upon the south part than on thenorth[74]. And because the heat is more intense in the south,than the cold in the north, and because every wightthrives better in cold than in heat, therefore is Africa inferiorto Europe, both in the number of its people, and in the extent ofits land[75]. The eastern part of Africa, as I said before,begins in the west of Egypt, at the river Nile, and the mosteastern country of this continent is Lybia. Ciramacia[76] is tothe west of lower Egypt, having the Mediterranean on the north,Libia Ethiopica to the south, and Syrtes Major to the west. Tothe east of Libia Ethiopica is the farther Egypt, and the seacalled Ethiopicum[77]. To the west of Rogathitus[78] is thenation called Tribulitania[79], and the nation called SyrtesMinores, to the north of whom is that part of the Mediterraneancalled the Hadriatic. To the west again of Bizantium, quite tothe salt mere of the Arzuges[80]; this nation has to theeast the Syrtes Majores, with the land of Rogathite; and to thesouth the Natabres, Geothulas, and Garamantes[81], quite to thesea of Bizantium. The sea ports of these nations are Adrumetisand Zuges, and their largest town is Catharina. The country ofNumidia has to the east the Syrtes Minores and the saltmere formerly mentioned, to the north the Mediterranean,to the west Mauritania, and to the south the hills of Uzera, andthe mountains which extend to Ethiopia, one way, and theMauritanian sea on the other side. To the east is Numidia, to thenorth the Mediterranean, to the west the river Malvarius, to thesouth Astryx, near the mountains which divide the fruitfulcountry from the wild and barren sands which lie southwardstowards the Mauritanian sea, by others called the Tingitanean. Tothe east is the river Malon[82], to the north the hills ofAbbenas and Calpri. Another mountain also closes the end of theMediterranean sea, between the two hills to the west, where standthe pillars of Ercoles or Hercules. To the west again is MountAtlas, quite to the sea; to the south the hills called AEsperos,and to the south again the nation called Ausolum[83], whichinhabits quite to the sea.

[74] This seems to have some obscure reference to anidea, that the sea had disjoined Europe and Africa. But the senseis extremely perplexed and even unintelligible.--E.

[75] It must be noticed, that Alfred was unacquaintedwith any more of Africa than its northern coast, along theMediterranean, which explains this erroneous idea of its sizebeing inferior to Europe.--E.

[76] Syrenaica.--E.

[77] The Red Sea, or Ethiopic Gulf. In this part ofthe geography of Alfred, his translator has left the sense oftenobscure or contradictory, especially in the directions, which, inthis version, have been attempted to be corrected. This may havebeen owing to errors in the Anglo-Saxon MS. which Barringtonprofesses to have translated literally, and he disclaims anyresponsibility for the errors of his author.--E.

[78] Probably some corruption of Syrtes Majores, orof Syrenaica.--E.

[79] Tripolitana, now Tripoli.--E.

[80] I can make nothing of this salt lake of theArzuges, unless it be the lake of Lawdeah, between Tunis andTripoli. The Getulians and Garamantes are well known ancientinhabitants of the interior of northern Africa; the Natabres areunknown.--E.

[81] The Garamantes are a well known people of theinterior of Africa, in ancient geography; of the Natabres I canmake nothing; the Geothulas are evidently theGetulians.--E.

[82] Probably the same called just before theMalvarius, and now the Malul. But the geographical description ofAfrica by Alfred, is so desultory and unarranged as to defycriticism.--E.

[83] Alfred may possibly have heard of theMonselmines who inhabit the north-western extremity of theSahara, or great African desert, and extend to theAtlantic.--E.

§ 15. Having thus stated the boundaries of Africa, weshall now speak of the islands in the Mediterranean: Cyprus liesopposite to Cilicia, and Isauria on that arm of the sea calledMesicos, being 170 miles long, and 122 miles broad. The island ofCrete is opposite to the sea called Artatium, northwest is thesea of Crete, and west is the Sicilian or Adriatic sea. It is 100miles long, and 150 miles broad. There are fifty-three of theislands called the Cyclades. To the east of them is the RiscaSea, to the south the Cretisca or Cretan, to the north the Egiscaor Egean, and to the west the Adriatic. The island of Sicily istriangular, and at each end there are towns. The northern isPetores[84], near which is the town of Messina; the south angleis Lilitem[85], near which is a town of the same name. The islandis 157 miles long from east to west, and 70 broad to theeastward. To the north-east is that part of the Mediterraneancalled the Adriatic, to the south the Apiscan sea, to the westthe Tyrrhene sea, and to the north the [86] sea, all of which arenarrow and liable to storms. Opposite to Italy, a small arm ofthe sea divides Sardinia from Corsica, which strait is twenty-twomiles broad. To the east of it is that part of the Mediterraneancalled the Tyrrhenian sea, into which the river Tiber emptiesitself. To the south is the sea which lies opposite to Numidia.To the west the Balearic islands, and to the north Corsica. Theisland of Corsica lies directly west from the city of Rome. Tothe south of Corsica is Sardinia, and Tuscany is to the north. Itis sixteen miles long, and nine broad[87]. Africa is to the southof the Balearic islands, Gades to the west, and Spain to thenorth. Thus I have shortly described the situation of the islandsin the Mediterranean.

[84] Faro.

[85] Lillibeum.

[86] The name of this sea is omitted in theMS.--Barr.

[87] These measures are incorrigibly erroneous, ormust have been transposed from some other place, having nopossible reference to Corsica.--E.

Note.--The subsequent sections of this chapter, although notof much importance in themselves, and some of them possessingrather doubtful authenticity, are inserted in this place on theauthority of Hakluyt. In an English general collection of voyagesand travels, it would have been improper to have omitted theseearly specimens, some of which are considerably interesting andcurious. In some measure these sections do not strictly belong tothe present chapter, as limited to the reign of Alfred, and theninth century; but as they contain isolated circ*mstances, whichdo not otherwise properly arrange themselves into the order ofour plan, they may be considered as forming a kind of appendix tothe era of Alfred. The number of these might have beenconsiderably increased from different sources, chiefly fromHakluyt, who collected them from the ancient historians; but asthey contain hardly any information, except historical, whichdoes not enter into our plan, the selection here given has beendeemed quite sufficient for this work.

SECTION VII.

The Travels of Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, in theEleventh Century[1].

[1] Hakluyt, II. 39.

Andrew Leucander, or Whiteman, as his Latinized name isexplained by Leland the antiquary, was an English monk, and thirdabbot of the monastery of Ramsay, who was much addicted to thestudy of the liberal sciences, devoting incredible exertions,both by day and night, to their cultivation, in which he profitedexceedingly. Having a most ardent desire to visit those placeswhere Christ our Saviour had perfected all the mysteries of ourredemption, of which he only knew the names in the course ofstudying the Scriptures, he went from England to the holy city ofJerusalem, where he visited all the places which had beenillustrated by the miracles, preaching, and passion of Christ;and on his return to the monastery he was elected abbot. Heflourished in the year of our redemption, 1020, under Canute theDane.

SECTION VIII.

The Voyage of Swanus to Jerusalem in 1052[1].

Swanus or Sweno, one of the sons of Earl Godwin, being of aperverse disposition, and faithless to the king, often quarrelledwith his father and his brother Harold; and, becoming a pirate,he disgraced the virtues of his ancestors, by his robberies onthe seas. At length, being guilty of the murder of his kinsmanBruno, and, as some report, of his own brother, he made apilgrimage to Jerusalem; and on his return towards England, hewas intercepted by the Saracens, by whom he was slain.

[1] Hakluyt, II. 39. Malmsb. Lib. II. ch.xiii.

SECTION IX.

A Voyage of three Ambassadors from England toConstantinople and the East, about the year 1056[2].

[2] Hakluyt, II, 40. Malmsb II. xiii.

Upon the holy festival of Easter, King Edward the Confessor,wearing his royal crown, sat at dinner in his palace ofWestminster, surrounded by many of his nobles. While others,after the long abstinence of the lent season, refreshedthemselves with dainty viands, on which they fed with muchearnestness, he, raising his mind above earthly enjoyments, andmeditating on divine things, broke out into excessive laughter,to the great astonishment of his guests. But no one presuming toinquire into the cause of his mirth, all kept silence till dinnerwas ended. After dinner, when the king had retired to hisbed-chamber, to divest himself of his robes, three of his nobles,Earl Harold, an abbot, and a bishop, who were more familiar withhim than any of the other courtiers, followed him into thechamber, and boldly asked the reason of his mirth, as it hadappeared strange to the whole court that his majesty should breakout into unseemly laughter on so solemn a day, while all otherswere silent. "I saw," said he, "most wonderful things, andtherefore did I not laugh without cause." And they, as iscustomary with all men, became therefore the more anxious tolearn the occasion of his mirth, and humbly beseeched him toimpart the reason to them. After musing for some time, he atlength informed them, that seven sleepers had rested during twohundred years on Mount Ceelius, lying always hitherto on theirright sides; but that, in the very moment of his laughter, theyhad turned themselves over to their left sides, in which posturethey should continue asleep for other seventy-four years, being adire omen of future misery to mankind. For all those things whichour Saviour had foretold to his disciples, that were to befulfilled about the end of the world, should come to pass withinthose seventy-four years. That nation should rise up againstnation, and kingdom against kingdom; and there would be in manyplaces earthquakes, pestilence, and famine, and terribleapparitions in the heavens, and great signs, with greatalterations of dominion; wars of the infidels against theChristians, and victories gained by the Christians over theunbelievers. And, as they wondered at these things, the kingexplained to them the passion of the seven sleepers, with theshape and proportion of each of their bodies, which wonderfulthings no man had hitherto committed to writing; and all this inso plain and distinct a manner, as if he had always dwelt alongwith them.

In consequence of this discourse, the earl sent a knight, thebishop a clerk, and the abbot a monk, as ambassadors to Manichesthe emperor of Constantinople, carrying letters and presents fromthe king. The emperor received them very graciously; and after afriendly entertainment, sent them to the bishop of Ephesus withletters, which they name sacred, commanding him to admit theEnglish ambassadors to see the seven sleepers. And it came topass, that the prophetic vision of King Edward was approved byall the Greeks, who protested that they were assured by theirfathers, that the seven sleepers had always before that timereposed on their right sides; but, upon the entry of theEnglishmen into the cave where they lay, their bodies confirmedthe truth of the foreign vision and prophecy to their countrymen.Neither were the calamities long delayed, which had been foretoldby the king. For the Agareni, Arabians, and Turks, enemies of thepeople of Christ, invading the country of the Christians, spoiledand destroyed many cities of Syria, Lycia, and the lesser andgreater Asias, and, among the rest, depopulated Ephesus, and eventhe holy city of Jerusalem.

SECTION X.

Pilgrimage of Alured, Bishop of Worcester, to Jerusalem,in 1058[1].

In the year of our Lord 1058, Alured, bishop of Worcester,dedicated, with much solemnity, to the honour of St Peter, theprince of the apostles, a church which he had built and endowedin the city of Gloucester; and afterwards having received theroyal licence, he ordained Wolstan, a monk of Worcester, to beabbot of this new church. He then left the bishoprick which hadbeen committed to his government, resigning the same to Herman,and, crossing the seas, travelled in pilgrimage through Hungaryand other countries, to Jerusalem.

[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. R. Hoveden, fo, 255. linel5.

SECTION XI.

Pilgrimage of Ingulphus Abbot of Croyland, to Jerusalem, in1064[1].

[1] Hakluyt, II. 41. Ingulph. Ab. Croyl. apudfinem.

I, Ingulphus, an humble minister of St Guthlae, in hismonastery of Croyland, born of English parents, in the mostbeautiful city of London, was, in, my early youth, placed for myeducation first at Westminster, and afterwards prosecuted mystudies at Oxford. Having excelled many of my fellow students inlearning Aristotle, I entered upon the study of the first andsecond rhetoric of Tully. As I grew up towards manhood, Idisdained the low estate of my parents, and quitting the dwellingof my father, I much affected to visit the courts of kings,delighting in fine garments and costly attire, And beholdWilliam, now our renewed sovereign, then only Earl of Normandy,came, with a splendid retinue to London, to confer with KingEdward his kinsman. Intruding myself into his company, Iproffered my services for the performance of any speedy orimportant affairs; and accordingly having executed manycommissions with good success, I became known to and much belovedby the illustrious earl, and sailed with him to Normandy. Beingthere appointed his secretary, I governed his court at mypleasure, though envied by several, abasing whom I thought fit,and preferring others at my will. But, prompted by youthfulpride, I began even to be wearied of this place, in which I wasadvanced so far beyond my birth; and, with an inconstant andover-ambitious mind, I vehemently aspired, on all occasions, toclimb to higher elevation.

About this time there spread a report through Normandy, thatseveral archbishops of the empire, and some even of the secularprinces, were desirous, for the salvation of their souls, to goin pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to pay their devotions at theHoly Sepulchre. Upon this, several of us, who were of thehousehold of our lord, the earl, both gentlemen and clerks, ofwhom I was the principal person, having received permission fromthe earl, addressed ourselves for the voyage; and, being togetherthirty horsem*n or more, in company, we went into Germany, andjoined ourselves to the Archbishop of Mentz. The whole beingassembled, the company of this archbishop amounted to seventhousand persons, all properly provided for the expedition; andwe travelled prosperously through many provinces, arriving atlength at the city of Constantinople. We there did reverence tothe Emperor Alexius, visited the church, of Sancta Sophia, anddevoutly kissed many sacred relics.

Departing from Constantinople, we travelled through Lycia,where we fell into the hands of Arabian thieves; and after we hadbeen robbed of infinite sums of money, and had lost many of ourpeople, we escaped with extreme peril of our lives, and at lengthentered joyfully into the most anxiously wished-for city ofJerusalem. We were there received by the most reverend, aged, andholy patriarch Sophronius, with a great melody of cymbals bytorch-light, and were conveyed in solemn procession, by a greatcompany of Syrians and Latins, to the church of the Most HolySepulchre of our blessed Saviour. Here, how many prayers weuttered, what abundance of tears we shed, what deep sighs webreathed forth, is only known to our Lord Jesus Christ. From themost glorious sepulchre of Christ, we were conducted to visit theother sacred monuments of the holy city; and saw, with weepingeyes, a great number of holy churches and oratories, which Achiusthe Soldan of Egypt had lately destroyed. And, having deeplybewailed all the ruins of that most holy city, both within andwithout its walls, and having bestowed money for the re-edifyingof some of these, we expressed the most ardent desire to go forthinto the country, that we might wash ourselves in the sacredriver Jordan, and that we might visit and kiss all the holyfootsteps of the blessed Redeemer. But the Arabian robbers, wholurked in every part of the country, would not suffer us totravel far from the city, on account of their numbers and savagemanners.

About the spring of the year, there arrived a fleet of shipsfrom, Genoa, at the port of Joppa; and when the Christianmerchants had exchanged all their commodities in the towns uponthe coast, and had likewise visited the holy places, we allembarked. After being tossed about upon the seas by many stormsand tempests, we landed at Brundusium; whence, with a prosperousjourney, we travelled through Apulia to Rome, where we visitedthe habitations of the holy apostles St Peter and St Paul, andperformed our devotions at various monuments of the holy, martyrsin different parts of the city. From thence, the archbishops andother princes of the empire Journeyed towards the right hand forGermany, while we declined to the left hand into France, takingour leaves of each other with indescribable courtesey and kindlygreeting. And at length, of thirty horsem*n of us who went fromNormandy fat and lusty, scarce twenty poor pilgrims returned, allon foot, and reduced almost to skeletons with fatigue andhardships.

CHAPTER II.

Original Discovery of Greenland by theIcelanders.[1]

[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. 79.

Although the discoveries contained in this and the nextsubsequent chapter were certainty preceded, in point of time, bythe voyages of the two Mahomedans, in Chap. IV. and the insertionof these two chapters, II. and III. in this place may thereforebe considered as a deviation from the chronological order of ourplan; it seemed proper and even necessary, that they should beboth introduced here, as presenting an unbroken series of thediscoveries of the Norwegians, and as fully authorized by thegeographical principles of our arrangement.

Among the many petty sovereigns, vikingr or chieftans ofNorway, who had been reduced to subjection by Harold Harfa*gr, orthe fair-haired, was one named Thorer. Thorwald, the relative ofthis person, had lived at the court of Earl Hayne, whence he hadbeen obliged to fly, on account of having committed a murder, andwent to Iceland, where he settled a considerable track of countrywith a new colony. Eric-raude, or red-head, the son of Thorwald,was long persecuted by a powerful neighbour named Eyolf Saur,because Eric had killed some of Eyolf's servants; and at lengthEric killed Eyolf likewise. For this and other crimes he wascondemned to go into banishment for three years; and knowing thata man named Gunbiorn had previously discovered certain banks tothe west of Iceland, named from him Gunbiorn's Schieran, orGunbar banks, and likewise a country of considerable extent stillfarther to the westwards, he determined on making a voyage ofdiscovery to that country. Setting sail therefore from Iceland,he soon fell in with a point of land called Hirjalfs-ness; andcontinuing his voyage to the south-west he entered a large inlet,to which he gave the name of Erics-sound, and passed the winteron a pleasant island in that neighbourhood. In the following yearhe explored the continent; and returning to Iceland in the thirdyear, he represented his new discovery in the fairest light,bestowing lavish praises on the rich meadows, fine woods, andplentiful fisheries of the country, which he called Greenland,that he might induce a considerable number of people to join withhim in colonizing this new country. Accordingly, there set outfor this place twenty-five vessels, carrying people of bothsexes, household furniture, implements of all kinds, and cattlefor breeding, of which only fourteen vessels arrived in safety.These first colonists were soon followed by many more, both fromIceland and Norway; and in a few years their number is said tohave increased so much, as to occupy both the eastern and westerncoasts of Greenland.

This is the ordinary and best authenticated account of thediscovery and settlement of Old Greenland, which rests onthe credit of the great northern historian, Snorro Sturleson,judge of Iceland, who wrote in the year 1215. Yet others assertthat Greenland had been known long before, and ground theirassertion on letters-patent from the Emperor Lewis the Pious in834, and a bull of Gregory IV. in 835, in which permission isgiven to Archbishop Ansgar to convert the Sueones, Danes,Sclavonians; and it is added, the Norwaehers, Farriers,Greenlanders, Halsingalanders, Icelanders, and Scridevinds. Evenallowing both charter and bull to be genuine, it is probable thatthe copy which has come down to our time is interpolated, andthat for Gronlandon and Islandon, we ought to read Quenlandon andHitlandon, meaning the Finlanders and Hitlanders: Quenland beingthe old name of Finland, and Hitland or Hialtaland the Norwegianname of the Shetland islands. It is even not improbable that allthe names in these ancient deeds after the Sueones, Danes, andSclavonians, had been interpolated in a later period; as StRembert, the immediate successor of Ansgar, and who wrote hislife, only mentions the Sueones, Danes, and Sclavonians, togetherwith other nations in the north; and even Adam of Bremen onlymentions these three, and other neighbouring and surroundingnations[2]. Hence the authority of St Rembert and SnorroSturleson remains firm and unshaken, in spite of these falsifiedcopies of the papal bull and imperial patent; and we may restassured that Iceland was not discovered before 861, nor inhabitedbefore 874; and that Greenland could hardly have been discoveredprevious to 982, or 983, and was not inhabited before 985 or986.-->Forst.

[2] Vit. S. Anscharii, ap. Langeb. Script. Dan. I.451. Ad. Brem. Hist. Eccles. Lib. I. cap. 17.

CHAPTER III.

Early Discovery of Winland by theIcelanders, about A.D. 1001.[1]

[1] Forster, Hist. of Disc. in the North, 82.

The passion which the Nordmen or Normans had always manifestedfor maritime expeditions, still prevailed among them in the coldand inhospitable regions of Iceland and Greenland. An Icelander,named Herjolf, was accustomed to make a trading voyage every yearto different countries, in which latterly he was accompanied byhis son, Biorn. About the year 1001, their ships were separatedby a storm, and Biorn learned on his arrival in Norway that hisfather had sailed for Greenland, to which place he resolved tofollow his father; but another storm drove him a great way to thesouth-west of his intended course, and he fell in with anextensive flat country covered all over with thick woods; andjust as he set out on his return, he discovered an island on thecoast. He made no stay at either of these places; but the windbeing now fallen, he made all the haste he could to return by anorth-east course to Greenland, where he reported the discoverywhich he had made.

Lief, the son of Eric-raude, who inherited from his father aninordinate desire of distinguishing himself by making discoveriesand planting colonies, immediately fitted out a vessel carryingthirty-five men; and taking Biorn along with him, set sail inquest of this newly discovered country. The first land discoveredin this voyage was barren and rocky, on which account Lief gaveit the name of Helleland, or Rockland. Proceeding farther, theycame to a low coast having a sandy soil, which was overgrown withwood, for which reason it was called Mark-land, or theWoody-land. Two days after this they again saw land, having anisland lying opposite to its northern coast; and on the mainlandthey discovered the mouth of a river, up which they sailed. Thebushes on the banks of this river bore sweet berries; thetemperature of the air was mild, the soil fertile[2], and theriver abounded in fish, particularly in excellent salmon.Continuing to sail up the river, they came to a lake, out ofwhich the river took its rise; and here they passed the winter.In the shortest day of winter, the sun remained eight hours abovethe horizon; and consequently the longest day, exclusive of thedawn and twilight, must have been sixteen hours. From thiscirc*mstance it follows, that the place in which they were was inabout 49° of north latitude; and as they arrived by asouth-westerly course from Old Greenland, after having clearedCape Farewell, it must either have been the river Gander or theBay of Exploits, in the island now called Newfoundland. It couldnot be on the northern coast of the Gulf of St Lawrence; as inthat case, they must have navigated through the straits ofBelleisle, which could not have escaped their notice. In thisplace they erected several huts for their accommodation duringwinter; and they one day found in the thickets a German namedTyrker, one of their own people, who had wandered among the woodsand been missing for some time. While absent, he had subsistedupon wild grapes, from which he told them that in his countrythey used to make wine; and from this circ*mstance Lief calledthe country Winland det gode, or Wine-land thegood[3].

[2] Every quality must be judged of by comparison;and, contrasted with the inhospitable regions of Iceland andGreenland, in lat. 65°, this country, which was as far southas even beyond the south of England, must have appearedadmirable.--E.

[3] It is true that grapes grow wild in Canada whichare very good to eat, yet no one has ever been able to make goodwine from their juice. Whether these wild grapes are found inNewfoundland I know not. The species of vines which grow in NorthAmerica, are named by Linnaeus, Vitis labrusca, vulpina, andarborea.--Forst.

The propriety of the names imposed by the Norwegians on theirnew discoveries is admirable. Iceland, Greenland, Helleland,Markland, Winland, and many others; which are perfectlyphilosophical, excellently systematic, and infinitely preferableto the modern clumsy appellations, New Britain, New France, NewEngland, New Holland, Sandwich Islands, Society islands, and amultitude of much worse names.--E.

In the following spring they returned to Greenland; andThorwald, Lief's maternal grandfather, made a trip with the samecrew that had attended his grandson, in order to make fartheradvances in this new discovery; and it is not at all to bewondered at, if people of every rank were eager to discover abetter habitation than the miserable coast of Greenland, and thelittle less dreary island of Iceland. In this voyage the coast ofthe newly discovered land was examined towards the west, orrather the north-west. Next summer Lief sailed again to Winland,and explored the coast to the east or south-east. The coast wasso much covered with wood and beset with islands, that they couldnot perceive a human creature, or animals of any kind. In thethird summer they examined the islands on the coast of Winland,and so damaged their ship that they found it necessary to build anew one, laying up their old vessel on a promontory, to whichthey gave the name of Kiaeler-ness. In their new vessel theyproceeded to examine the eastern or south-eastern shore ofWinland, and in their progress they fell in with three boatscovered with hides, having three men in each. These they seized,but one man found means to escape from them, and they wantonlybutchered all the rest. Soon after this they were attacked by agreat number of the natives, armed with bows and arrows, fromwhich they screened themselves in their ship with a fence ofplanks; and they defended themselves with so much spirit thattheir enemies were forced to retire, after giving them battle foran hour. Thorwald received a severe wound from an arrow in thisskirmish, of which he died; and over his grave, on a cape orpromontory, two crosses were erected at his request; from whichthe cape was called Krossa-ness, or Cross Point.

To the natives of Winland, the Icelanders gave the name ofSkraellinger, signifying cuttings or dwarfs, on account of theirbeing of very low stature. These were probably the ancestors ofthe present Eskimaux, who are the same people with theGreenlanders, and are called Eskimantsik in the language of theAbenaki, on account of their eating raw fish; in the same manneras the Russians, in their official state papers, call theSamojeds Sirojed'zi, because they also eat raw and frozen fishand flesh.

In the same year Thorstein, the third son of Eric-raude, setsail for Winland, taking with him his wife, Gudridthe daughter ofThorbern, with his children and servants, amounting in all totwenty-five persons; but they were forced by a storm on thewestern coast of Greenland, where they were obliged to spend thewinter, and where Thorstein died, with a large proportion of hisretinue, probably of the scurvy. Next spring Gudrid took the deadbody of her husband home; and Thorfin, surnamed Kallsefner, anIcelander of some consequence, descended from KingRegner-Lodbrok, married the widow of Thorstein, from which heconsidered himself entitled to the possession of the newlydiscovered country. He accordingly sailed for Winland with a vastquantity of household furniture, implements of all kinds, andseveral cattle, and accompanied by sixty-five men and five women,with whom he began to establish a regular colony. He wasimmediately visited by the Skraellingers, who bartered with him,giving the most valuable furs for such wares as the Icelandershad to give in exchange. The natives would willingly havepurchased the weapons of the Icelanders, but this was expresslyand judiciously forbidden by Thorfin. Yet one of them found meansto steal a battle-ax, of which he immediately made a trial on oneof his countrymen, whom he killed with one blow; on which a thirdperson seized the mischievous weapon and threw it into the sea.During a stay of three years, Thorfin acquired a large stock ofrich furs and other merchandize, with which he returned toGreenland; and at length removing to Iceland, he purchased anestate in the northern part of Syssel, and built a very eleganthouse which he called Glaumba. After his death, his widow Gudridmade a pilgrimage to Rome, whence she returned, and ended herdays in a nunnery in Iceland, which was built for her by her sonSnorro, who was born in Winland.

Sometime afterwards, Finbog and Helgo, two Icelanders, fittedout two ships, carrying thirty men, with which they made a voyageto Winland. In this expedition they were accompanied by Freidis,the daughter of Eric-raude; but by the turbulence of herdisposition, she occasioned many divisions and quarrels in theinfant colony, in one of which Finbog and Helgo were both killed,together with thirty of their followers. Upon this Freidisreturned to Greenland, where she lived for some time universallydetested and despised, and died in the utmost misery. Theremaining colonists were dispersed, and nothing farther that canbe depended on remains on record concerning them. Even theIcelandic colony in Greenland has disappeared, and the easterncoast, on which especially it was settled, has become longinaccessible, in consequence of the immense accumulation of icein the straits between it and Iceland. To this it may be added,that, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, a prodigiousnumber of people were carried off in Norway and Iceland by adisease or pestilence called the Black Death; probably thescurvy in its worst state, occasioned by a succession ofinclement seasons and extreme scarcity, impelling the famishedpeople to satisfy the craving of hunger upon unwholesome food.Deprived of all assistance from Iceland and Norway, the colonistsof Greenland and Winland were in all probability extirpated bythe continual hostilities of the Skraellingers, or Eskimaux; andthe fabulous idea of any remnant of those in Winland having stillan existence in the interior of Newfoundland, is entirelyunworthy of any consideration.

CHAPTER IV.

Travels of two Mahomedans in India andChina, in the Ninth Century.[1]

[1] Translation from Renaudot, 8vo. Lond. 1733. Seelikewise Harris, I. 522.

INTRODUCTION.

This curious remnant of antiquity was translated from theArabic, and published in 1718, by Eusebius Renaudot, a learnedMember of the French Academy, and of the Academy of Inscriptionsand Belles Lettres. It is not known by whom the travels wereactually performed, neither can their exact date be ascertained,as the commencement of the MS. which was translated by Renaudotwas imperfect; but it appears to have been written in the 237thyear of the Hegira, or in the year 851 of the Christian era.Though entitled the travels of two Mahomedans, the travelsseem to have been mostly performed by one person only; the latterportion being chiefly a commentary upon the former, and appearsto have been the work of one Abu Zeid al Hasan of Siraf, and tohave been written about the 803d year of the Hegira, or A.D. 915.In this commentary, indeed, some report is given of the travelsof another Mahomedan into China. The MS. employed by Renaudotbelonged to the library of the Count de Seignelay, and appears tohave been written in the year 619 of the Hegira, or A.D. 1173.The great value of this work is, that it contains the veryearliest account of China, penned above four hundred yearsearlier than the travels of Marco Polo, who was esteemed thefirst author on the subject before this publication appeared.

There are many curious and remarkable passages in thesetravels, which convey information respecting customs and eventsthat are nowhere else to be found; and though some of these carrya fabulous appearance, the greatest part of them have beenconfirmed and justified by the best writers in succeeding ages.The first portion, or the actual narrative, begins abruptly, onaccount of some portion of the original manuscript being lost,which would probably have given the name and country of theauthor, and the date and occasion of his voyage.

In the accompanying commentary by Abu Zeid, we are informedthat the date of the narrative was of the Hegira 237, A.D. 851,which circ*mstance was probably contained in the missing part ofthe manuscript; but though written then, it is probable that thefirst journey of the author was undertaken at least twenty yearsbefore that date, or in 831, as he observes, that he made asecond journey into the same countries sixteen years afterwards,and we may allow four years for the time spent in the twojournies, and the intervening space, besides the delay ofcomposition after his last return. Though not mentioned, it isprobable his travels were undertaken for the purpose of trade, aswe can hardly suppose him to have twice visited those distantcountries merely for the satisfaction of curiosity.

With regard to the second treatise or commentary, it seemsprobable, that when the affairs of China became better known,some prince or person of distinction had desired Abu Zeid toexamine the former relation, and to inform him how far the factsof the original work were confirmed by succeeding accounts. Thedate of the commentary is not certainly ascertainable; yet itappears, that Eben Wahab travelled into China A.H. 285. A.D. 898,and that Abu Zeid had conversed with this man after his return,and had received from him the facts which are inserted in hisdiscourse, which therefore is probably only sixty or seventyyears posterior to the actual treatise of the namelesstraveller.

SECTION I.

Original Account of India and China, by a MahomedanTraveller of the Ninth Century.

The third of the seas we have to mention is that ofHerkend[1]. Between this sea and that of Delarowi there are manyislands, said to be in number 1900, which divide those two seasfrom each other[2], and are governed by a queen[3]. Among theseislands they find ambergris in lumps of extraordinary bigness,and also in smaller pieces, which resemble plants torn up. Thisamber is produced at the bottom of the sea, in the same manner asplants are produced upon the earth; and when the sea istempestuous, it is torn up from the bottom by the violence of thewaves, and washed to the shore in the form of a mushroom ortruffle. These islands are full of that species of palm treewhich bears the cocoa nuts, and they are from one to four leaguesdistant from each other, all inhabited. The wealth of theinhabitants consists in shells, of which even the royal treasuryis full. The workmen in these islands are exceedingly expert, andmake shirts and vests, or tunics, all of one piece, of the fibresof the cocoa nut. Of the same tree they build ships and houses,and they are skilful in all other workmanships. Their shells theyhave from the sea at certain times, when they rise up to thesurface, and the inhabitants throw branches of the cocoa nut treeinto the water, to which the shells stick. These shells they callKaptaje.

[1] This is probably the sea about the Maldives,which, according to the eastern geographers, divides that part ofthe Indian Ocean from the sea of Delarowi, or the Magnus Sinus ofthe ancients. The eastern writers often speak of the Seven Seas,which seems rather a proverbial phrase, than a geographicaldefinition. These are the seas of China, India, Persia, Kolzoum,or the Red Sea, of Rum or Greece, which is the Mediterranean,Alehozar or the Caspian, Pont or the Euxine. The sea of India isoften called the Green Sea, and the Persian Gulf the sea ofBassora. The Ocean is called Bahr Mahit.--Harris.

[2] Male-dive signifies, in the Malabar language, athousand isles.--E.

[3] The subsequent accounts of these islands do notjustify this particular sentence, if the author meant that theywere always governed by a queen. It might be so in this time byaccident, and one queen might have succeeded another, as QueenElizabeth did Queen Mary.--Harris.

Beyond these islands, and in the sea of Herkend, isSerendib[4] or Ceylon, the chief of all these islands, which arecalled Dobijat. It is entirely surrounded by the sea, and on itscoast they fish for pearls. In this country there is a mountaincalled Rahun, to the top of which Adam is said to have ascended,where he left the print of his foot, seventy cubits long, on arock, and they say his other foot stood in the sea at the sametime. About this mountain there are mines of rubies, opals, andamethysts. This island is of great extent, and has two kings; andit produces aloes wood, gold, precious stones, and pearls, whichlast are fished for on the coast; and there are also found a kindof large shells, which are used for trumpets, and much esteemed.In the same sea, towards Serendib, there are other islands, notso many in number as those formerly mentioned, but of vastextent, and unknown. One of these is called Ramni, which isdivided among a number of princes, and in it is found plenty ofgold. The inhabitants have cocoa nut trees, which supply themwith food, and with which also they paint their bodies, and oilthemselves. The custom of the country is, that no man can marrytill he has killed an enemy, and brought off his head. If he haskilled two he claims two wives, and if he has slain fifty he mayhave fifty wives. This custom proceeds from the number of enemieswith which they are surrounded, so that he who kills the greatestnumber is the most considered. These islands of Ramni abound withelephants, red-wood, and trees called Chairzan, and theinhabitants eat human flesh.

[4] This is the Taprobana of the ancients, and hasreceived many names. In Cosmas Indicopleustes, it is calledSielendiba, which is merely a Grecian corruption of Sielea-dive,or Sielen island; whence the modern name ofCeylon.--E.

These islands separate the sea of Herkend from the sea ofShelabet, and beyond them are others called Najabalus, which arepretty well peopled, both men and women going naked, except thatthe women wear aprons made of leaves. When shipping goes amongthese islands, the inhabitants come off in boats, bringing withthem ambergris and cocoa nuts, which they barter for iron; for,being free from the inconveniencies either of extreme heat orcold they want no clothing. Beyond these two islands is the seaof Andaman. The people on this coast eat human flesh quite raw;their complexion is black, with frizzled hair, their countenanceand eyes frightful, their feet very large, almost a cubit inlength, and they go quite naked. They have no sort of barks orother vessels, or they would seize and devour all the passengersthey could lay their hands upon. When ships have been kept backby contrary winds, and are obliged to anchor on this barbarouscoast, for procuring water, they commonly lose some of theirmen.

Beyond this there is an inhabited mountainous island, which issaid to contain mines of silver; but as it does not lie in theusual track of shipping, many have searched for it in vain,though remarkable for a very lofty mountain called Kashenai. Aship, sailing in its latitude, once got sight of this mountain,and steered for the coast, where some people were sent on shoreto cut wood: The men kindled a fire, from which there ran outsome melted silver, on which they concluded that there must havebeen a silver mine in the place, and they shipped a considerablequantity of the earth or ore; but they encountered a terriblestorm on their voyage back, and were forced to throw all theirore overboard to lighten the vessel. Since that time the mountainhas been several times carefully sought for, but no one has everbeen able to find it again. There are many such islands in thoseseas, more in number than can be reckoned; some inaccessible byseamen, and some unknown to them.

It often happens in these seas that a whitish cloud suddenlyappears over-head, which lets down a long thin tongue or spout,quite to the surface of the water, which is then turned swiftlyround as if by a whirlwind, and if a vessel happens to be in theway, she is immediately swallowed up in the vortex. At lengththis cloud mounts up again and discharges itself in prodigiousrain; but it is not known whether this water is sucked up by thecloud, or how this phenomenon comes to pass. All these seas aresubject to prodigious storms, which make them boil up like waterover a fire; at which times the waves dash the ships against theislands with unspeakable violence, to their utter destruction;and even fish; of all sizes are thrown dead on shore, against therocks, by the extreme agitation of the sea. The wind whichcommonly blows upon the sea of Herkend is from a differentquarter, or from the N.W.; but this sea is likewise subject to asviolent agitations as those just mentioned, and there ambergrisis torn up from the bottom, particularly where it is very deep;and the deeper the sea so much the more valuable is the ambergriswhich it produces. It is likewise observed, that when this sea istossed by tempestuous winds it sparkles like fire; and it isinfested with a certain kind of fish called Lockham, whichfrequently preys upon men[5].

[5] This is probably the shark, which is common onall the coasts of India. There was a portion of the MS. wantingat this place; wherein the author treated of the trade to Chinaas it was carried on in his time, and of the causes which hadbrought it into a declining condition. --Renaud.

Among other circ*mstances, the fires which frequently happenat Canfu are not the least remarkable. Canfu is the port of allthe ships of the Arabs who trade to China, and fires are therevery frequent, because all the houses are of wood or of splitcanes; besides, ships are often lost in going and coming, or theyare plundered, or obliged to make too long a stay in harbours, orto sell their goods out of the country subject to the Arabs, andthere to make up their cargoes. In short, ships are under anecessity of wasting much time in refitting, and many othercauses of delay. Soliman[6] the merchant, writes, that at Canfu,which is a principal staple of merchants, there is a Mahomedanjudge appointed by the emperor of China, who is authorized tojudge in every cause which arises among the Mahomedans who resortto these parts. Upon festival days he performs the publicservices of religion to the Mahomedans, and pronounces the usualsermon or Kotbat, which he concludes with the usual formof prayers for the sultan of the Moslems. The merchants of Irakor Persia, who trade to Canfu, are no way dissatisfied with theconduct of this judge in the administration of his office,because his decisions are just and equitable, and conformable tothe Koran.

[6] Perhaps some account of this Soliman might becontained in the lost pages: But the circ*mstance of a Mahomedanjudge or consul at Canfu is a circ*mstance worthy of notice, andshews that the Mahomedans had carried on a regular and settledtrade with China for a considerable time, and were in highestimation in that country.--Renaud.

Respecting the places whence ships depart and those they touchat, many persons affirm that the navigation is performed in thefollowing order: Most of the Chinese ships take in their cargoesat Siraff[7], where also they ship their goods which come fromBasra, Oman, and other ports; and this is done because there arefrequent storms and many shallows in those seas. From Basra toSiraff is an hundred and twenty leagues; and when ships haveloaded at this latter place they take in water there also. Fromthence they sail to a place called Mascat, in the extremity ofthe province of Oman, which is about two hundred leagues fromSiraff. On the east coast of this sea, between Siraff and Mascat,is a place called Nasir Bani al Sasack, and an island called EbnKahowan, and in this sea there are rocks called Oman, and anarrow strait called Dordur between two rocks, through whichships often venture to pass, but the Chinese snips dare not.There are also two rocks called Kossir and Howare, which scarceappear above the water's edge. After they are clear of theserocks, they steer to a place called sh*tu Oman, and take in waterat Muscat, which is drawn up from wells, and are here alsosupplied with cattle from the province of Oman. From Mascat theships take their departure for India, and first touch atKaucammali, which is a month's sail from Mascat with a fair wind.This is a frontier place, and the chief arsenal in the provinceof that name; and here the Chinese ships put in and are insafety, and procure fresh water. The Chinese ships pay here athousand drams for duties, whereas others pay only from one dinarto ten. From thence they begin to enter the sea of Herkend, andhaving sailed through it, they touch at a place called Lajabalus,where the inhabitants do not understand Arabic, or any otherlanguage in use among merchants. They wear no clothes, are white,and weak in their feet. It is said their women are not to beseen, and that the men leave the island in canoes, hollowed outof one piece, to go in quest of them, and carry them cocoa nuts,mousa, and palm wine. This last liquor is white, and when drankfresh is sweet like honey, and has the taste of cocoa nut milk;if kept some time, it becomes as strong as wine, but after somedays changes to vinegar. These people give this wine, and thesmall quantities of amber which is thrown up on their coasts, forbits of iron, the bargains being made by signs; but they areextremely alert, and are very apt to carry off iron from themerchants without making any return.

[7] It is difficult at this distance of time toascertain the rout laid down by this author, on account of thechanges of names. This mart of Siraff is not to be met with inany of our maps; but it is said by the Arabian geographers tohave been in the gulf of Persia, about sixty leagues from Shiraz;and that on its decay, the trade was transferred toOrmuz.--Renaud.

From Lajabalus the ships steer for Calabar, the name of akingdom on the right hand beyond the Indies, which depends on thekingdom of Zabage, bar signifying a coast in the languageof the country. The inhabitants are dressed in those sorts ofstriped garments which the Arabs call Fauta, and they commonlywear only one at a time, which fashion is common to people of allranks. At this place they take in water, which is drawn fromwells that are fed by springs, and which is preferred to thatwhich is procured from cisterns or tanks. Calabar is about amonth's voyage from a place called Kaukam, which is almost uponthe skirts of the sea of Herkend. In ten days after this, shipsreach Betuma, from whence, in ten days more, they come toKadrange. In all the islands and peninsulas of the Indies, wateris to be found by digging. In this last mentioned place there isa very lofty mountain, which is entirely inhabited by slaves andfugitives. From thence, in ten days, they arrive at Senef, whereis fresh water, and from whence comes the aromatic wood which wecall Hud al Senefi. Here is a king; the inhabitants are black,and they wear two striped garments. Having watered at this place,it is ten days passage to Sanderfulat, an island which has freshwater. They then steer through the sea of Sanji, and so to thegates of China; for so they call certain rocks and shallows whichform a narrow strait in that sea, through which the ships areobliged to pass. It requires a month to sail from Sanderfulat toChina, and it takes eight whole days to steer through among therocks and shoals.

When a ship has got through the before mentioned gates, shegoes with the flood tide into a fresh water gulf, and dropsanchor in the chief port of China, which is called Canfu[8],where they have fresh water, both from springs and rivers, asalso in most of the other cities of China. The city is adornedwith large squares, and is supplied with every thing necessaryfor defence against an enemy, and in most of the other provincesof the empire there are cities of strength similarly fortified.In this port the tide ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours;but, whereas from Basra to the island of Bani Kahouan it flowswhen the moon is at full, and ebbs when she rises and when shesets; from near Bani Kahouan quite to the coast of China it isflood tide when the moon rises, and ebb when she is at herheight; and so on the contrary, when she sets, it is flowingwater, and when she is quite hidden under the horizon, the tidefalls.

[8] It is probable, or rather certain, that Canton ishere meant.--E.

They say, that in the island of Muljan, between Serendib andCala, on the eastern shore of the Indies, there are negroes whogo quite naked; and when they meet a stranger they hang him up bythe heels and slice him into pieces, which they eat quite raw.These negroes, who have no king, feed chiefly on fish, mousa,cocoa nuts, and sugar canes. It is reported, that in some partsof this sea, there is a small kind of fish which flies above thewater, and is called the sea locust; that in another part, thereis a fish which, leaving the sea, gets up into the cocoa nuttrees, and having drained them of their juices, returns to thesea; and it is added, that there is a fish like a lobster orcrab, which petrifies as soon as it is taken out of its element,and that when pulverized it is a good remedy for several diseasesof the eyes. They say also, that near Zabage there is a volcanicmountain which cannot be approached, which sends forth a thicksmoke by day, and throws out flames at night; at the foot ofwhich are two springs of fresh water, one hot and the othercold.

The Chinese are dressed in silk garments, both in summer andwinter, and this dress is common both to the prince and peasant.In winter, they wear drawers of a particular make, which reach totheir feet, and of these, they put on two, three, four, five, ormore, one over the other, if they can afford it; and are verycareful to be covered quite down to their feet, because of thedamps, which are very great, and of which they are extremelyapprehensive. In summer they only wear a single garment of silk,or some such light dress, but they have no turbans. Their commonfood is rice, which they eat frequently with a broth made of meator fish, like that used by the Arabs, and which they pour uponthe rice. Their kings eat wheaten bread, and the flesh of allkinds of animals, not excepting swine, and some others not usedby us. They have several sorts of fruits, as apples, lemons,quinces, moulats, sugar canes, citruls, figs, grapes, cucumbersof two sorts, trees, which produce a substance like meal,walnuts, almonds, filberts, pistachios, plumbs, apricots,services, and cocoa nuts, but no store of palms, of which theyhave only a few about private houses. Their drink is a kind ofwine made of rice, having no other wine in the country, neitheris any other imported by them. They do not even know what wineis, nor will they drink of it. They have vinegar also, and a kindof comfit, like that called Natef by the Arabs and someothers.

The Chinese are by no means nice in point of cleanliness, notwashing with water when they ease nature but only wiping withpaper. They do not scruple to eat of animals which have died, andthey practise many other things like the Magians[9]; and intruth, the two religions are much similar. Their women appearuncovered, and adorn their heads with many small ivory combs, ofwhich they wear sometimes a score at one time. The heads of themen are covered by a cap, of a particular make. Thieves are putto death as soon as caught.

[9] Meaning the Parsees or Guebres, thefire-worshippers of Persia.--E.

The Indians and Chinese agree that there are four great orprincipal kings in the world, all of them allowing that the kingof the Arabs is the first and most powerful of kings, the mostwealthy, and the most excellent every way, because he is theprince and head of a great religion, and because no othersurpasses him. The Emperor of China reckons himself next afterthe king of the Arabs, after him the king of the Greeks, andlastly the Balhara[10], or king of the Moharmi al Adon, or peoplewho have their ears bored. The Balhara is the most illustrioussovereign in all the Indies, and though all the other kings inIndia are masters and independent each in their own dominions,they thus so far acknowledge his preeminence, that when he sendsambassadors to the other princes, they are received withextraordinary honours. This king makes magnificent presents afterthe manner of the Arabs, and has vast numbers of horses andelephants, and great treasures in money. His silver coin is whatwe call Thartarian drams, being equal to one and a half of theArabian dram. They are coined with the die of the prince, andbear the year of his reign, counting from the last year of thereign of his predecessor. They compute not their years from theera of Mahomed, like the Arabs, but only by the years of theirsuccessive kings. Most of these princes live a long time, many ofthem having reigned above fifty years; and those of the countrybelieve that the length of their lives and reigns is granted inrecompence of their kindness to the Arabs; for there are noprinces more heartily affectionate to the Arabs, and theirsubjects profess the same kindness for us. Balhara is not aproper name, but an appellative, common to all those kings, likeCosroes and some others. The country under the dominion of theprince begins on the coast of the province called Kamcam, andreaches by land to the confines of China. He is surrounded by thedominions of many kings, who are at war with him, yet he nevermarches against them.

[10] It is probable that this Balhara, or king of thepeople with bored ears, which plainly means the Indians, was theZamorin or Emperor of Calicut; who, according to the reports ofthe most ancient Portuguese writers concerning India, wasacknowledged as a kind of emperor in the Indies, six hundredyears before they discovered the route to India by the Cape ofGood Hope.--Harris.

The original editor of this voyage in English, Harris, iscertainly mistaken in this point. The Balhara was the sovereignof Southern Seindetic India; of which dominion Guzerat was theprincipal province.--E.

One of these is the king of Harez, who has very numerousforces, and is stronger in cavalry than all the other princes ofthe Indies. He is an enemy to the Arabs, neither is there anyprince in India who has a greater aversion to the Mahomedans;though he confesses their king to be the greatest of princes. Hisdominions are on a promontory, where are much riches, manycamels, and abundance of other cattle. The inhabitants trafficfor silver, and they say there are mines of that metal on thecontinent. There are no robbers in this country, nor in the restof the Indies. On one side of this country is that of Tafek,which is not of very great extent. This king has the finest whitewomen in all the Indies; but he is awed by the kings about him,as his army is very small. He has a great affection for the Arabsas well as the Balhara. These kingdoms border upon the lands of aking called Rami, who is at war with the king of Harez, and withthe Balhara likewise. This prince is not much considered, eitherfor the dignity of his birth or the antiquity of his kingdom; buthis forces are more numerous than those of the Balhara, and eventhan those of the kings of Harez and Tafek. It is said that heappears in the field at the head of fifty thousand elephants, andcommonly marches in the rainy season, because his elephantscannot move at any other time, as they are unable to bear thirst.His army is said commonly to contain from ten to fifteen thousandtents. In this country they make cotton garments of suchextraordinary fineness and perfection, as is to be seen nowhereelse. These garments are mostly round, and are wove so extremelyfine, that they may be drawn through a moderately sized ring.Shells are current in this country as small money; and they haveabundance of gold and silver, aloes wood, and sable skins, ofwhich they make their horse-furniture.

In this country is the famous Karkandan, that is therhinoceros, or unicorn, which has but one horn on his forehead,on which there is a round spot with the representation of a man;the whole horn being black, except the spot in the middle whichis white. The rhinoceros is much smaller than the elephant, andresembles the buffalo from the neck downwards, and excels allother creatures in extraordinary strength. His leg is all onethickness, from the shoulder to the foot, and the hoof is notcloven. The elephant flies from the rhinoceros, whose lowing islike that of an ox, with something of the cry of the camel. Hisflesh is not forbidden, and we have eaten of it; There are greatnumbers of this creature in the fens of this country, as also inall the other provinces of India; but the horns of these are mostesteemed, having generally upon them the figures of men,peaco*cks, fishes and other resemblances. The Chinese adorn theirgirdles with these sorts of figures, so that some of theirgirdles are worth two or three thousand pieces of gold in China,and sometimes more, the price augmenting with the beauty of thefigures. All these things are to be purchased in the kingdom ofRahmi, for shells, which are the current money of thecountry.

After this country, there is an inland state distant from thecoast, and called Kaschbin, of which the inhabitants are white,and bore their ears. They have camels, and their country is forthe most part desert, and full of mountains. Farther on thecoast, there is a small kingdom called Hitrange, which is verypoor; but in its bay, the sea throws up great quantities ofambergris, and they have elephants teeth and pepper; but theinhabitants eat this last green, because of the small quantitythey gather. Beyond these, there are other kingdoms, but theirnumbers and names are unknown. Among these is one named Mujet,the inhabitants of which are white and dress after the Chinesemanner; their country is full of mountains, having white tops,and of very great extent, in which there are great quantities ofmusk; esteemed the most exquisite of any in the world. They havecontinual war with all the surrounding kingdoms; The kingdom ofMabet is beyond that of Mujet, wherein are many cities, and theinhabitants have even a greater resemblance to the Chinese thanthose of Mujet; for they have officers or eunuchs like those whogovern the cities among the Chinese. The country of Mabet bordersupon China, and is at peace with the emperor, but not subject tohim. The king of Mabet sends ambassadors every year with presentsto the emperor of China, who in return sends ambassadors andpresents to Mabet. But when the ambassadors of Mabet enter China,they are very carefully watched, lest they should survey thecountry, and form designs of conquest; which would be nodifficult matter, as their country is very extensive, andextremely populous, and as they are only divided from China byrocks and mountains.

It is said that, in the country of China, there are above twohundred cities having jurisdiction over others, each of which hasa governor and an eunuch or lieutenant. Canfu is one of thesecities, being the port for all shipping, and has jurisdictionover twenty towns. A town is raised, to the dignity of a city, bythe grant of certain large trumpets. These are three or fourcubits in length, and as large about as can be grasped by bothhands, growing smaller towards the end which is fitted to themouth. On the outside, they are adorned with Chinese ink, and maybe heard at the distance of a mile. Each city has four gates, ateach of which five of these trumpets are stationed, which aresounded at certain hours of the day and night. There are also tendrums in each city, which are beaten at the same times; and thisis done as a public token of obedience to the emperor, and topoint out the hours of the day and night to the inhabitants; andfor ascertaining the time; they have sun dials, and clocks withweights[11].

[11] This is a very early notice of the constructionand use of clocks, or machinery to indicate divisions of time, bymeans of weights.--E.

In China they use a great quantity of copper money, like thatnamed falus by the Arabians, which is the only sort of smallmoney, and is current all over the country, and is indeed theonly current coin. Yet their emperor has treasures like otherkings, containing abundance of gold and silver, with jewels,pearls, silk, and vast quantities of rich stuffs of all kinds,which are only considered as moveables or merchandize; and fromforeign commerce they derive ivory, frankincense, copper in bars,tortoise shell, and unicorns horns, with which they adorn theirgirdles. Of animals they have abundance, particularly of beastsof burden; such as oxen, horses, asses, and camels; but they haveno Arabian horses. They have an excellent kind of earth, of whichthey make a species of ware equal in fineness to glass, andalmost equally transparent. When merchants arrive at Canfu, theChinese seize their cargoes, which they convey to warehouses,where the goods are detained six months, until the last merchantship of the season has arrived; they then detain three parts inten of every species of commodity, or thirty per cent as duty,and return the rest to the merchants. Besides which, if theemperor has a mind for any particular article, his officers havea right of taking it in preference to any other person, payingfor it, however, to the utmost value; and they dispatch thisbusiness with great expedition, and without the least injustice.They commonly take the whole importation of camphor, on theaccount of the emperor, and pay for it at the rate of fiftyfakuges per man, each fakuge being worth a thousandfalus, or pieces of copper coin. When it happens that theemperor does not take the camphor, it sells for half as muchagain.

The Chinese do not bury their dead till the day twelve monthsafter their decease; but keep them all this time in coffins insome part of their houses, having previously dried them by meansof quicklime. The bodies of their kings are embalmed with aloesand camphor. They mourn during three whole years, and whoevertransgresses this law is punished with the bamboo, a chastisem*ntto which both men and women are subjected, and are at the sametime reproached for not shewing concern for the death of theirparents. They bury their dead in deep pits, much like those inuse among the Arabs. During all the time that the dead body ispreserved in the house, meat and drink are regularly set beforeit every evening; and if they find these gone in the morning,they imagine that the dead have consumed all; and all this timethey cease not from bewailing their loss, insomuch, that theirexpences upon these occasions, in paying the last duties to theirdeceased relations, are exorbitant, and often consume theirwealth and estates, to the utter ruin of the living. In formertimes, they buried very rich apparel, and those expensive girdlesalready mentioned, with the bodies of their kings, and others ofthe blood royal; but this custom is now discontinued, because ithas happened that the bodies have been dug up from their gravesby thieves, for the sake of what was buried with them. The wholenation, great and small, rich and poor, are taught to read andwrite. The titles of their viceroys or governors, are variedaccording to the dignity and rank of the cities under theirgovernment. Those of the smaller cities are called Tusing,which signifies the governor of a town. Those of the greatercities, such as Canfu, are stiled Difu, and the eunuch orlieutenant is stiled Tukam. These lieutenants are selectedfrom among the inhabitants of the cities. There is also a supremejudge called Lakshima-makvan, and they have other namesfor other officers, which we do not know how properly toexpress.

A person is never raised to the dignity of a prince, orgovernor of a city, until he has attained to his fortieth year;for then they say he has acquired experience. When one of theseprinces or viceroys holds his court, in the city of hisresidence, he is seated on a tribunal, in great state, andreceives the petitions or complaints of the people; having anofficer called Lieu, who stands behind the tribunal, andindorses an answer upon the petition, according to the order ofthe viceroy; for they null no applications but what are inwriting, and give all their decisions in the same manner. Beforeparties can present their petitions to the viceroy, they must besubmitted to the proper officer for examination, who sends themback if he discovers any error; and no person may draw up any ofthose writings which are to be presented to the viceroy, except aclerk versant in business, who must mark at the bottom that it iswritten by such a man, the son of such a man: And if the clerk isguilty of any error or mistake, he is punished with the bamboo.The viceroy never seats himself on his tribunal until he haseaten and drank, lest he should be mistaken in some things; andhe receives his subsistence from the public treasury of the cityover which he presides. The emperor, who is above all theseprinces or petty kings, never appears in public but once in tenmonths, under the idea that the people would lose theirveneration for him if he shewed himself oftener; for they hold itas a maxim, that government can only subsist by means of force,as the people are ignorant of the principles of justice, and thatconstraint and violence are necessary to maintain among them themajesty of empire.

There are no taxes imposed upon the lands, but all the men ofthe country are subject to a poll-tax in proportion to theirsubstance. When any failure of crops makes necessaries dear, theking opens his store-houses to the people, and soils all sorts ofnecessaries at much cheaper rates than they can be had in themarkets; by which means famine is prevented, and no dearth is ofany long continuance. The sums that are gathered by thiscapitation tax are laid up in the public treasury, and I believe,that from this tax, fifty thousand dinars are paid every day intothe null of Canfu alone, although that city is not one of thelargest. The emperor reserves to himself the revenues which arisefrom the salt mines, and those which are derived from impositionsupon a certain herb called Tcha, which they drink with hotwater, and of which vast quantities are sold in all the cities inChina. This is produced from a shrub more bushy than thepomegranate tree, and of a more pleasant smell, but having a kindof a bitterish taste. The way of using this herb is to pourboiling water upon the leaves, and the infusion cures alldiseases. Whatever sums come into the public treasury arise fromthe capitation tax, the duties upon salt, and the tax upon thisleaf.

In every city there is a small bell hung to the wall,immediately over the head of the viceroy or governor, which maybe rung by a string which reaches about three miles, and crossesthe high way, on purpose that all the people may have access toit; und whenever the string is pulled, and the bell strikes, theperson who thus demands justice is immediately commanded to bebrought into the presence, where he sets forth his case inperson. If any person inclines to travel from one part of thecountry to another, he must have two passes along with him, onefrom the governor, and the other from the lieutenant. Thegovernor's pass permits him to set out on his journey, andspecifies the name of the traveller, and of all that are in hiscompany, with their names and ages; for every person in China,whether native, Arab, or other foreigner, is obliged to make afull declaration of every thing he knows about himself. Thelieutenant's pass specifies the exact quantities of goods andmoney which the traveller and his company take along with them,and this is done for the information of the frontier places,where both passes are regularly examined; for whenever a personarrives at any of these places, it is entered in the registerthat such a one, the son of such a one, of such a family, passedthrough the place, in such a month, day, and year, and in suchcompany. By this means they prevent any one from carrying off themoney or effects of others, or the loss of their own goods incase of accident; so that if any thing has been taken awayunjustly, or if the traveller should die on the road, it may beimmediately known where the things are to be found, that they maybe restored to the claimants, or to the heirs of thedeceased.

The Chinese administer justice with great strictness, in alltheir tribunals. When any person commences a suit againstanother, he sets down his claim in writing, and the defendantwrites down his defence, which he signs, and holds between hisfingers. These two writings are delivered in at the same time;and being examined, sentence is pronounced in writing, each ofthe parties having his papers returned to him, the defendanthaving his delivered first. When one party denies what the otheraffirms, he is ordered to return his writing; and if thedefendant thinks he may do it safely, and delivers in his papersa second time, those of the plaintiff are likewise called for;and he who denies the affirmation of the other, is warned, thatif he does not make out what he denies, he shall undergo twentystrokes of the bamboo on his buttocks, and shall pay a fine oftwenty fakuges, which amount to about two hundred dinars.And the punishment of the bamboo is so severe, that the criminalcan hardly survive, and no person in all China is permitted toinflict it upon another by his own authority, on pain of death,and confiscation of his goods; so that no one is ever so hardy asto expose himself to such certain danger, by which means justiceis well administered to all. No witnesses are required, neitherdo they put the parties upon oath.

When any person becomes bankrupt, he is immediately committedto prison in the governor's palace, and is called upon for adeclaration of his effects. After he has remained a month inprison, he is liberated by the governor's order, and aproclamation is made, that such a person, the son of such a one,has consumed the goods of such a one, and that if any personpossesses any effects, whatever belonging to the bankrupt, a fulldiscovery must be made within one month. If any discovery is madeof effects belonging to the bankrupt, which he had omitted todeclare, he suffers the punishment of the bamboo, and isupbraided with having remained a month in prison, eating anddrinking, although he has wherewithal to satisfy his creditors.He is reproached for having fraudulently procured and embezzledthe property of others, and is chastised for stripping otherpeople of their substance. But if, after every inquiry, thedebtor does not appear to have been guilty of any fraud, and ifit is proved to the satisfaction of the magistrate, that he hasnothing in the world, the creditors are called in, and receive apart of their claims from the treasury of the Bagbun. This is theordinary title of the emperor of China, and signifies the Son ofHeaven, which we ordinarily pronounce Magbun. After this, it ispublickly forbidden to buy of or sell to the bankrupt, that hemay not again have an opportunity of defrauding his creditors, byconcealing their money or effects. If it be discovered that thebankrupt has any money or effects in the hands of another, andthat person makes no disclosure within the time limited, theperson guilty of this concealment is bambooed to death, and thevalue discovered is divided among the creditors; but the debtoror bankrupt must never more concern himself with trade.

Upon a stone ten cubits high, erected in the public squares ofall the cities, the names of all sorts of medicines, with theexact prices of each, are engraven; and when the poor stand inneed of relief from physic, they receive, at the treasury, theprice that each medicine is rated at. In China there is no taxupon land, but every male subject pays a rateable capitation inproportion to his wealth and possessions. When a male child isborn, his name is immediately entered in a public register, andwhen he has attained his eighteenth year he begins to pay thepoll-tax; but when once a man has reached his eightieth year, henot only ceases to contribute, but even receives a pension fromthe treasury, as a provision for old age, and in acknowledgmentof what he paid during his youth. There are schools, maintainedat the public charge, in every town, where the children of thepoor are taught to read and write. The women wear nothing ontheir heads besides their hair, but the men are covered. In Chinathere is a certain town called Tayu, having a castle,advantageously situated on a hill, and all the fortresses in thekingdom are called by the same name. The Chinese are generallyhandsome, of comely stature, and of fair complexions, and by nomeans addicted to excess in wine. Their hair is blacker than thatof any other nation in the world, and the Chinese women wear itcurled.

In the Indies, when one man accuses another of a capitalcrime, it is usual to ask the accused if he is willing to undergothe trial by fire, and if he consents, the ceremony is conductedin the following manner: A piece of iron is heated red hot, andthe accused is desired to stretch out his hand, on which they putseven leaves of a certain tree, and above these the red hot ironis placed. In this condition he walks backwards and forwards forsome time, and then throws off the iron. Immediately after thishis hand is covered with a leathern bag, which is sealed with theprince's signet; and if at the end of three days he appears anddeclares that he has suffered no hurt, they order him to take outhis hand, and if no sign of fire is visible, he is declaredinnocent of the crime laid to his charge, and the accuser iscondemned to pay a fine of a man of gold to the prince.Sometimes they boil water in a caldron, till it is so hot that noone can touch it; they then throw in an iron ring, and theaccused is commanded to thrust down his hand to bring up thering. I saw one who did this and received no manner of harm. Inthis case, likewise, if the accused remain unhurt, the accuserpays a fine of a man of gold.

When a king dies in the island of Serendib, which is the lastof the islands of the Indies, his body is laid in an openchariot, in such a posture, that his head hangs backward, almosttouching the ground, with his hair trailing on the earth; and thechariot is followed by a woman, who sweeps the dust on the faceof the deceased, while she proclaims with a loud voice: "O man!behold your king! He was yesterday your master, but now thedominion which he exercised over you is at an end. He is reducedto the state you now see, having left the world; and the arbiterof life and death hath withdrawn his soul. Count not, therefore,O man! upon the uncertain hopes of this life." This or a similarproclamation is continued for three days; after which the body isembalmed with sandal wood, camphor, and saffron, and is thenburned, and the ashes are scattered to the winds. When they burnthe body of a king, it is usual for his wives to jump into thefire and burn along with him; but this they are not constrainedto do. The same custom of burning the bodies of the dead prevailsover all the Indies.

In the Indies there are men who devote themselves to live inthe woods and mountains, professing to despise what other menmost value, abstaining from every thing but such wild herbs andfruits as are to be found in the woods, and they affix an ironbuckle to their genitals in such a manner as to interdict allcommerce with woman. Some of these go quite naked, or have onlythe skin of a leopard thrown over them, and keep perpetuallystanding with their faces to the sun. I formerly saw one in thatposture; and on my return to the Indies, sixteen yearsafterwards, I found him in the very same attitude, it beingastonishing that he had not lost his sight by the heat and glareof the sun. In all these kingdoms the sovereign power resides inthe royal family, without ever departing from it, and the heirsof the family follow each other in regular succession. In likemanner, there are families of learned men, of physicians, and ofall the artificers concerned in the various arts; and none ofthese are ever mixed with the family of a different profession.The several states of the Indies are not subject to one king, buteach province has its own; though the Balhara is considered inthe Indies as king of kings. The Chinese are fond of gaming andall manner of diversions; but the Indians condemn them, and haveno pleasure in such employments. They drink no wine, neither dothey use vinegar, because it is made from wine; although thisabstinence does not proceed from any religious duty: but theyallege that a king given to wine is not worthy of being a king;for how should a drunkard be able to manage the affairs of akingdom, especially as wars are so frequent between theneighbouring states? Their wars are not usually undertaken topossess themselves of the dominions of others, and I never heardof any except the people bordering on the pepper country thatseized the dominions of their neighbours after victory. When aprince masters the dominions of a neighbour, he confers thesovereignty upon some person of the royal family of the conqueredcountry, and thus retains it in dependence upon himself, underthe conviction that the natives would never submit to beotherwise governed.

When any one of the princes or governors of cities in China isguilty of a crime, he is put to death and eaten; and in general,it may be said that the Chinese eat all those who are put todeath. When the Indians and Chinese are about to marry and theparties are agreed, presents are interchanged, and the marriageceremony is solemnized amidst the noise of drums and varioussorts of instruments. The presents consist in money, and all therelatives and friends contribute as much as they can afford. Ifany man in the Indies runs away with a woman and abuses her, bothare put to death; unless it is proved that force has been usedagainst the woman, in which case the man only is punished. Theftis always punished capitally, both in India and China, whetherthe theft be considerable or trifling; but more particularly soin the Indies, where, if a thief have stolen even the value of asmall piece of money, he is impaled alive. The Chinese are muchaddicted to the abominable vice of pederasty, which they evennumber among the strange acts they perform in honour of theiridols. The Chinese buildings are of wood, with stone and plaster,or bricks and mortar. The Chinese and Indians are not satisfiedwith one wife, but both nations marry as many as they please, orcan maintain. Rice is the common food of the Indians, who eat nowheat; but the Chinese use both indifferently. Circumcision isnot practised either by the Chinese or Indians. The Chineseworship idols, before whom, they fall down and make prayers, andthey have books which explain the articles of their religion. TheIndians suffer their beards to grow, but have no whiskers, and Ihave seen one with a beard three cubits long; but the Chinese,for the most part, wear no beards. Upon the death of a relation,the Indians shave both head and face. When any man in the Indiesis thrown into prison, he is allowed neither victuals nor drinkfor seven days together; and this with them answers the end ofother tortures for extorting from the criminal a confession ofhis guilt. The Chinese and Indians have judges besides thegovernors, who decide in causes between the subjects. Both inIndia and China there are leopards and wolves, but no lions.Highway robbers are punished with death. Both the Indians andChinese imagine that the idols which they worship speak to them,and give them answers. Neither of them kill their meat by cuttingthe throat, as is done by the Mahomedans, but by beating them onthe head till they die. They wash not with well water, and theChinese wipe themselves with paper, whereas the Indians washevery day before eating. The Indians wash not only the mouth, butthe whole body before they eat, but this is not done by theChinese. The Indies is larger in extent by a half than China, andhas a great many more kingdoms, but China is more populous. It isnot usual to see palm trees either in the Indies or in China, butthey have many other sorts of trees and fruits which we have not.The Indians have no grapes, and the Chinese have not many, butboth abound in other fruits, though the pomegranate thrivesbetter in India than in China.

The Chinese have no sciences, and their religion and most oftheir laws are derived from the Indians. They even believe thatthe Indians taught them their worship of idols. Both nationsbelieve the Metempsycosis, though they differ in many of theprecepts and ceremonies of their religion. Physic and philosophyare cultivated among the Indians, and the Chinese have some skillin medicine; but that almost entirely consists in the art ofapplying hot irons or cauteries. They have some smattering ofastronomy; but in this likewise the Indians surpass the Chinese.I know not that even so much as one man of either nation hasembraced Mahomedism, or has learned to speak the Arabic language.The Indians have few horses, and there are more in China; but theChinese have no elephants, and cannot endure to have them intheir country. The Indian dominions furnish a great number ofsoldiers, who are not paid by their kings, but, when called outto war, have to take the field and serve entirely at their ownexpense; but the Chinese allow their soldiers much the same payas is done by the Arabs.

China is a pleasant and fruitful country, having numerousextensive and well fortified cities, with a more wholesomeclimate and less fenny country than India, in which most of theprovinces have no cities. The air in China likewise is muchbetter than in India, and there are scarcely any blind persons,or who are subject to diseases of the eyes; and similaradvantages are enjoyed by several of the provinces of India. Therivers of both countries are large, and surpass our greatestrivers, and much rain falls in both countries. In the ladiesthere are many desert tracks, but China is inhabited andcultivated through its whole extent. The Chinese are handsomerthan the Indians, and come nearer to the Arabs in countenance anddress, in their manners, in the way of riding, and in theirceremonies, wearing long garments and girdles in the manner ofbelts; while the Indians wear two short vests, and both men andwomen wear golden bracelets, adorned with precious stones.

Beyond the kingdom of China, there is a country calledTagazgaz, taking its name from a nation of Turks by whichit is inhabited, and also the country of Kakhan which borders onthe Turks. The islands of Sila are inhabited by white people, whosend presents to the Emperor of China, and who are persuaded thatif they were to neglect this the rain of heaven would not fallupon their country. In that country there are white falcons; butnone of our people have been there to give us any particularinformation concerning them.

SECTION II.

Commentary upon the foregoing Account, by Abu Zeid al Hasanof Siraff.

Having very carefully examined the book I was desired toperuse, that I might confirm what the author relates so far as heagrees with what I have learnt concerning the affairs ofnavigation, the kingdoms on the coast, and the state of thecountries of which he treats, and that I might add what I haveelsewhere collected concerning these matters: I find that thisbook was composed in the year of the Hegira 237, and that theaccounts given by the author are conformable with what I haveheard from merchants who have sailed from Irak or Persia,through these seas. I find also all that the author has writtento be agreeable to truth, except some few passages, in which hehas been misinformed. Speaking of the custom, of the Chinese insetting meat before their dead, and believing that the dead hadeaten, we had been told the same thing, and once believed it; buthave since learnt, from a person of undoubted credit, that thisnotion is entirely groundless, as well as that the idolatersbelieve their idols speak to them. From that creditable person wehave likewise been informed, that the affairs of China wear quitea different aspect since those days: and since much has beenrelated to explain why our voyages to China have beeninterrupted, and how the country has been ruined, many customsabolished, and the empire divided, I shall here declare what Iknow of that revolution.

The great troubles which have embroiled the affairs of thisempire, putting a stop to the justice and righteousness thereformerly practised, and interrupting the ordinary navigation fromSiraff to China, was occasioned by the revolt of an officer namedBaichu, in high employment, though not of the royal family. Hebegan by gathering together a number of vagabonds, and disorderlypeople, whom he won to his party by his liberalities, and formedinto a considerable body of troops. With these he committedhostilities in many parts of the country, to the great loss ofthe inhabitants; and having greatly increased his army, and puthimself into a condition to attempt greater things, he began toentertain a design of subduing the whole empire, and marcheddirect for Canfu, one of the most noted cities in China, and atthat time the great port for our Arabian commerce. This citystands upon a great river, some days sail from the sea, so thatthe water there is fresh. The citizens shut their gates againsthim, and he was obliged to besiege it a great while; but atlength he became master of the city, and put all the inhabitantsto the sword. There are persons fully acquainted with the affairsof China, who assure us, that besides the Chinese who weremassacred upon this occasion, there perished one hundred andtwenty thousand Mahomedans, Jews, Christians, and Parsees, whowere there on account of traffic; and as the Chinese areexceedingly nice in the registers they keep of foreignersdwelling among them, this number may be considered as authentic.This took place in the year of the hegira 264, or of Christ 877.He also cut down the mulberry trees, which are carefullycultivated by the Chinese for their leaves, on which the silkworms are fed; and owing to this, the trade of silk has tailed,and that manufacture, which used to be much prosecuted in all thecountries under the Arabian government, is quite at a stand.

Having sacked and destroyed Canfu, he possessed himself ofmany other cities, which he demolished, having first slain mostof the inhabitants, in the hope that he might involve all themembers of the royal family in this general massacre, that no onemight remain to dispute with him for the empire. He then advancedto Cumdan[1], the capital city, whence the emperor was obliged tomake a precipitate retreat to the city of Hamdu, on the frontierstowards Thibet. Puffed up with these great successes, Baichu madehimself master of almost the whole country, there being no oneable to dispute his authority. At length the emperor wrote to theking of the Tagazgaz in Turkestan, with whom he was in somedegree allied by marriage, imploring his assistance to subdue therebellion. The king of the Tagazgaz dispatched his son, at thehead of a very numerous army, into China, and after a long andarduous contest, and many battles, Baichu was utterly defeated,and it was never known afterwards what became of him; somebelieving that he fell in the last battle, while others supposedthat he ended his days in a different manner. The emperor ofChina now returned to his capital, much weakened and dispiritedin consequence of the embezzlement of his treasures, and the lossof the best of his officers and troops, and the horribledevastations, calamities, and losses which his empire hadsustained; yet he made himself master of all the provinces whichhad revolted from his authority. He would not, however, lay hishands upon the goods of his subjects, notwithstanding theexhausted state of his finances, but satisfied himself with whatwas still left in his coffers, and the small remains of thepublic money that was to be found, requiring nothing from hissubjects, but what they were willing to give, and only demandingobedience to the laws and to his authority, considering that theyhad been already severely oppressed in consequence of therebellion. Thus, China became like the empire of Alexander, afterthe defeat and death of Darius, when he divided the provincesamong his chiefs, who became so many kings. For now, each of theChinese princes, or viceroys, joined themselves into pettyalliances, making wars among themselves without the authority ofthe emperor; and when the stronger had subdued the weaker, andacquired possession of his province, the subjects of thevanquished prince were unmercifully wasted and plundered, andeven barbarously devoured: a cruel practice allowed by the lawsof their religion, which even permit human flesh to be exposed topublic sale in the markets. There arose from all these confusionsmany unjust dealings with the merchants; and there was nogrievance so intolerable, or treatment so bad, but what wasexercised upon the Arab merchants, and captains of ships,extorting from them what was altogether uncustomary, seizing upontheir effects, and behaving towards them quite contrary to allthe ancient usages; so that our merchants were forced to returnin crowds to Siraff and Oman[2].

[1] From the description of this place afterwards, inthe travels of Ebn Wahab, in this article, it appears to havebeen Nankin.--E.

[2] The chronology of the Chinese history is attendedwith extreme difficulty. According to Du Halde: In the reign ofthe emperor Hi Tseng, the 18th of the Tsongdynasty, the empire fell into great confusion, in consequence ofheavy taxations, and a great famine occasioned by the inundationof the rivers, and the ravages of locusts. These things causedmany insurrections, and a rebel, named Hoan Tsia puthimself at the head of the malcontents, and drove the emperorfrom the imperial city. But he was afterwards defeated, and theemperor restored. It must be owned that there are about twentyyears difference between the time of the rebellion mentioned inthe text, and the date of the great revolt, as assigned by DuHalde; but whether the mistake lies in the Arabian manuscript, orin the difficulties of Chinese chronology, I cannot take upon meto determine; yet both stories probably relate to the same event.--Harris.

The punishment of married persons, convicted of adultery, aswell as for the crimes of homicide and theft, is as follows: Thehands are bound fast together, and forced backwards over thehead, till they rest on the neck. The right foot is then fastenedto the right hand, and the left foot to the left hand, and alldrawn tight together behind the back, so that the criminal isincapable to stir; and by this torture the neck is dislocated,the joints of the arms start from their sockets, and the thighbones are disjointed;--in short, the tortured wretch would soonexpire without any farther process; yet, in that state, he isbeaten by bamboos till at the last gasp, and is then abandoned tothe people, who devour the body.

There are women in China who refuse to marry, and prefer tolive a dissolute life of perpetual debauchery. A woman who hasmade this election, presents herself in full audience before thecommanding officer of a city, declares her aversion to marriage,and desires to be enrolled among the public women. Her name isthen inserted in the register, with the name of her family, theplace of her abode, the number and description of her jewels, andthe particulars of her dress. She has then a string put round herneck, to which is appended a copper ring, marked with the king'ssignet, and she receives a writing, certifying that she isreceived into the list of prostitutes, and by which she isentitled to a pension from the public treasury of so manyfalus yearly, and in which the punishment of death isdenounced against any man who should take her to wife. Everyyear, regulations are published respecting these women, and suchas have grown old in the service are struck off the list. In theevening, these women walk abroad in dresses of different colours,unveiled, and prostitute themselves to all strangers who lovedebauchery; but the Chinese themselves send for them to theirhouses, whence they do not depart till next morning.

The Chinese coin no money, except the small pieces of copperlike those we falus, nor will they allow gold and silverto be coined into specie, like our dinars and drams; for theyallege that a thief may carry off ten thousand pieces of goldfrom the house of an Arab, and almost as many of silver, withoutbeing much burthened, and so ruin the man who suffers the loss;but in the house of a Chinese, he can only carry off ten thousandfalus at the most, which do not make above ten meticals orgold dinars in value. These pieces of copper are alloyed withsome other metal, and are about the size of a dram, or the pieceof silver called bagli, having a large hole in the middleto string them by. A thousand of them are worth a metical or golddinar; and they string them by thousands, with a knotdistinguishing the hundreds. All their payments, whether forland, furniture, merchandize, or any thing else, are made in thismoney, of which there are some pieces at Siraff, inscribed withChinese characters. The city of Canfu is built of wood and canesinterwoven, just like our lattice-work of split canes, the wholewashed over with a kind of varnish made of hempseed, whichbecomes as white as milk, having a wonderfully fine gloss. Thereare no stairs in their houses, which are all of one storey, andall their valuables are placed in chests upon wheels, which incase of fire can easily be drawn from place to place, without anyhinderance from stairs.

The inferior officers of the cities, and those commonly whohave the direction of the customs and of the treasury, are almostall eunuchs, some of whom have been captured on the frontiers andmade so, while others are so treated by their fathers, and sentas presents to the emperors. These officers are at the head ofthe principal affairs of state, and have the management of theemperor's private affairs, and of the treasury; and those,particularly, who are sent to Canfu, are selected from thisclass. It is customary for them, and for the viceroys orgovernors of the cities, to appear abroad from time to time insolemn procession. On these occasions, they are preceded by menwho carry great pieces of wood, like those used in the Levantinstead of bells by the Christians, on which they make a noisewhich is heard at a great distance, upon which every person getsout of the way of the prince or eunuch. Even if a man is at hisdoor, he goes in, and keeps his door shut till the greatpersonage has gone by. Thus, not a soul is in the way, and thisis enjoined that they may strike a dread into the people, and beheld in veneration; and the people are not allowed to see themoften, lest they should grow so familiar as to speak to them..All these officers wear very magnificent dresses of silk, so finethat none such is brought into the country of the Arabs, as theChinese hold it at a very high price. One of our chief merchants,a man of perfect credibility, waited upon an eunuch who had beensent to Canfu, to purchase some goods from the country of theArabs. The eunuch had upon his breast a short and beautiful silkvest, which was under another silk vest, and seemed to have twoother vests over that again; and perceiving that the Arab eyedhim very steadfastly, he asked him the cause; and being told thathe admired the beauty of the little vest under his othergarments, the eunuch laughed, and holding out his sleeve to him,desired him to count how many vests he had above that which he somuch admired. He did so, and found five, one over the other, andthe little rich vest undermost. These garments are all wove ofraw silk, which has never been washed or fulled; and those wornby the princes or governors are still richer, and moreexquisitely, wrought.

The Chinese surpass all nations in all arts, and particularlyin painting, and they perform such perfect work, as others canbut faintly imitate. When an artificer has finished a piece, hecarries it to the prince's palace to demand the reward which hethinks he deserves, for the beauty of his performance; and thecustom is for the prince to order the work to be left at the gateof the palace for a whole year, and if in that time no personfinds a just fault in the piece, the artificer is rewarded, andadmitted into the body of artists; but if any fault isdiscovered, the piece is rejected, and the workman sent offwithout reward. It happened once, that one of these artistspainted an ear of corn, with a bird perched upon it, and hisperformance was very much admired. This piece, stood exposed topublic view as usual, and one day a crooked fellow going past,found fault with the picture, and was immediately conducted tothe prince or governor, who sent for the painter that he mighthear his piece criticized. Being asked what fault he had to find,he answered, that every one knew that a bird never settles on anear of corn, but it must bend under the weight; whereas thispainter had represented the ear of corn bolt upright, thoughloaded with a bird. The objection was held just, and the painterwas dismissed without reward. By such means, they excite theirworkmen to aim at perfection, and to be exceedingly nice andcirc*mspect in what they undertake, and to apply their wholegenius to any thing that has to go through their hands.

There dwelt at Basra one Ebn Wahab, of the tribe of Koreish,descended from Hebar, the son of Al Asud, who quitted Basra whenit was sacked, and came to Siraff, where he saw a ship preparingto sail for China[3]. The humour took him to embark in this shipfor China, and he had the curiosity to visit the emperor's court.Leaving Canfu, he went to Cumdan, after a journey of two months,and remained a long while at the court, where he presentedseveral petitions to the emperor, setting forth, that he was ofthe family of the prophet of the Arabs. After a considerableinterval, the emperor ordered him to be lodged in a houseappointed for the purpose, and to be supplied with every thing hemight need. The emperor then wrote to the governor of Canfu, toinquire carefully among the Arabian merchants respecting thisman's pretensions; and receiving a full confirmation of hisextraction, received him to an audience, and made him richpresents, with which he returned to Irak.

[3] According to Abulpharagius, one Abu Said revoltedagainst the Khaliff Al Mohated, in the year of the hegira, 285,A.D. 893, and laid waste Bassora. This date agrees with the storyof Ebn Wahab in the text. --Harris.

When, we saw him, this man was much advanced in years, but hadhis senses perfectly. He told us that the emperor asked him manyquestions respecting the Arabs, and particularly how they haddestroyed the kingdom of the Persians. Ebn Wahab answered, thatthey had done it by the assistance of God, and because thePersians were immersed in idolatry, adoring the sun, moon, andstars, instead of the Almighty. The emperor said, that they hadconquered the most illustrious kingdom of the earth, the bestcultivated, the most populous, the most pregnant of fine wits,and of the highest fame. The emperor then asked Ebn Wahab whataccount the Arabs made of the other kings of the earth; to whichhe answered that he knew them not. Then the emperor caused theinterpreter to say, we admit but five great kings. He who ismaster of Irak has the kingdom of widest extent, which issurrounded by the territories of other kings, and we find himcalled King of Kings. After him is the emperor of China, who isstyled King of Mankind, for no king has more absolute authorityover his subjects, and no people can be more dutiful andsubmissive than his subjects. Next is the king of the Turks,whose kingdom borders on China, and who is styled the King ofLions. Next is the king of the Elephants, who is king of theIndies, whom we call King of Wisdom. Last of all is the King ofGreece, whom we call King of Men, as there are no men of bettermanners, or comlier appearance, on the face of the earth, thanhis subjects.

Ebn Wahab was then asked if he knew his lord and master theprophet Mohammed, and if he had seen him? How could that be, saidWahab, seeing that he is with God? Being then asked what mannerof person he was; he answered that he was very handsome. Then agreat box was brought, out of which another box was taken, andthe interpreter was desired to shew him his lord and master. EbnWahab, upon looking in, saw the images of the prophets and theemperor observing him to move his lips, desired him to be askedthe reason; on which he said he was praying inwardly in honour ofthe prophets. Being asked how he knew them, he said by therepresentation of their histories; as for instance, one was Noahand his ark, who were saved from the flood with those who werewith them. The emperor laughed, and said he was right in regardto Noah, but denied the universal deluge; which, though it hadcovered part of the earth, did not reach China or the Indies. OnWahab observing that the next was Moses, with his rod, and thechildren of Israel; the emperor agreed that their country was ofsmall extent, and that Moses had extirpated the ancientinhabitants. Wahab then pointed out Jesus upon the ass,accompanied by his apostles. To this the emperor said, that hehad been a short time upon earth, all his transactions havingvery little exceeded the space of thirty months. On seeing theimage of Mohammed riding on a camel, and his companions abouthim, with Arabian shoes and leathern girdles, Wahab wept; andbeing asked the reason, he answered, it was on seeing his prophetand lord, who was his cousin also. The emperor then askedconcerning the age of the world; and Wahab answered, thatopinions varied on the subject, as some reckoned it to be sixthousand years old, while some would not allow so many, andothers extended it to a greater antiquity. Being asked why he haddeserted his own king, to whom he was so near in blood; he gaveinformation of the revolutions which had happened at Basra, whichhad forced him to fly to Siraff; where, hearing of the glory ofthe emperor of China, and the abundance of every thing in hisempire, he had been impelled by curiosity to visit it; but thathe intended soon to return to the kingdom of his cousin, where heshould make a faithful report of the magnificence of China, thevast extent of its provinces, and of the kind usage he had metwith. This seemed to please the emperor, who made him richpresents, and ordered him to be conducted to Canfu on posthorses[4]. He wrote also to the governor of that city, commandinghim to be treated with honour; and to the governors of theprovinces through which he had to pass, to shew him everycivility. He was treated handsomely during the remainder of hisstay in China, plentifully supplied with all necessaries, andhonoured with many presents[5].

[4] From this circ*mstance, it appears probable thatthe great canal of China was not thenconstructed.--E.

[5] Some circ*mstances in this very interestingdetail have been a little curtailed. If Abu Zaid had been a manof talents, he might surely have acquired and transmitted moreuseful information from this traveller; who indeed seems to havebeen a poor drivelling zelot.--E.

From the information of Ebn Wahab, we learn that Cumdan, wherethe emperor of China keeps his court, is a very large andextremely populous city, divided into two parts by a very longand broad street. That the emperor, his chief ministers, thesupreme judge, the eunuchs, the soldiery, and all belonging tothe imperial household, dwelt in that part of the city which ison the right hand eastward; and that the people were not admittedinto that part of the city, which is watered by canals fromdifferent rivers, the borders of which are, planted with trees,and adorned by magnificent palaces. That portion of the city onthe left hand, westwards from the great street, is inhabited bythe ordinary kind of people, and the merchants, where also aregreat squares and markets for all the necessaries of life. Atday-break every morning, the officers of the royal household,with the inferior servants, purveyors, and the domestics of thegrandees of the court, come into that division of the city, someon horseback, and others on foot, to the public markets, and theshops of those who deal in all sorts of goods, where they buywhatever they want, and do not return again till their occasionscall them back next morning. The city is very pleasantly situatein the midst of a most fertile soil, watered by several rivers,and hardly deficient in any thing except palm trees, which grownot there.

In our time a discovery has been made, of a circ*mstance quitenew and unknown to our ancestors. No one ever imagined that thegreat sea which extends from the Indies to China had anycommunication with the sea of Syria. Yet we have heard, that inthe sea of Rum, or the Mediterranean, there was found the wreckof an Arabian ship, which had been shattered by a tempest, inwhich all her men had perished. Her remains were driven by thewind and weather into the sea of the Chozars, and thence by thecanal of the Mediterranean sea, and were at last thrown upon thecoast of Syria. Hence it is evident, that the sea surrounds allthe country of China and Sila or Cila, the uttermost parts ofTurkestan, and the country of the Chozars, and that itcommunicates by the strait with that which washes the coast ofSyria. This is proved by the structure of the wreck; of which theplanks were not nailed or bolted, like all those built in theMediterranean, or on the coast of Syria, but joined together inan extraordinary manner, as if sewed, and none but the ships ofSiraff are so fastened. We have also heard it reported, thatambergris has been found on the coast of Syria, which seems hardto believe, and was unknown to former times. If this be true, itis impossible that amber should have been thrown up on the sea ofSyria, but by the sea of Aden and Kolsum, which has communicationwith the seas where amber is found. And as God has put aseparation between these seas, it must have necessarily been,that this amber was driven from the Indian Seas into the others,in the same direction with the vessel of Siraff[6].

[6] There is a vast deal of error in this longparagraph. It certainly was impossible to ascertain the route orvoyage of the wreck, which was said to have been cast awayon the coast of Syria. If it could have been ascertained to havecome from the sea of the Chozars, or the Euxine, by the canal ofConstantinople, and the Egean, into the gulf of Syria, andactually was utterly different from the build of theMediterranean, it may or must have been Russian. If it certainlywas built at Siraff, some adventurous Arabian crew must havedoubled the south of Africa from the east, and perished when theyhad well nigh immortalized their fame, by opening up the passageby sea from Europe to India: And as the Arabian Moslems very soonnavigated to Zanguebar, Hinzuan, and Madagascar, where theircolonies still remain, this list is not impossible, though veryunlikely. The ambergris may have proceeded from a sick cachalotthat had wandered into the Mediterranean.

The north-east passage around the north of Asia and Europe,which is adduced by the commentator, in Harris's Collection, isnow thoroughly known to be impracticable.--E.

The province of Zapage is opposite to China, and distant fromthence a month's sail or less, if the wind be fair. The king ofthis country is styled Mehrage, and his dominions are said to be900 leagues in circumference, besides which, he commands overmany islands which lie around; so that, altogether, this kingdomis above 1000 leagues in extent. One of these islands is calledSerbeza, which is said to be 400 leagues in compass;another is called Rhami, which is 800 leagues round, andproduces red-wood, camphor, and many other commodities. In thesame kingdom is the island of Cala, which is the midpassage between China and the country of the Arabs. This islandis 80 leagues in circumference, and to it they bring all sorts ofmerchandize, as aloes wood of several kinds, camphor, sandalwood, ivory, the wood called cabahi, ebony, red-wood, allsorts of spice, and many others; and at present the trade iscarried on between this island and that of Oman. The Mehrage issovereign over all these islands; and that of Zapage, in which heresides, is extremely fertile, and so populous, that the townsalmost touch each other, no part of the land being uncultivated.The palace of the king or Mehrage, stands on a river as broad asthe Tigris at Bagdat or Bassora; but the sea intercepts itscourse, and drives its waters back with the tide; yet during theebb the fresh water flows out a good way into the sea. The riverwater is let into a small pond, close to the king's palace, andevery morning the master of the household brings an ingot ofgold, wrought in a particular manner, and throws it into thepond, in presence of the king. When the king dies, his successorcauses all these ingots, which have been accumulating during thereign of his predecessor, to be taken out; and the sums arisingfrom this great quantity of gold are distributed among the royalhousehold, in certain proportions, according to their respectiveranks, and the surplus is given to the poor.

Komar is the country whence the aloes wood, which we call Hudal Komari, is brought; and it is a very populous kingdom, ofwhich the inhabitants are very courageous. In this country, theboundless commerce with women is forbidden, and indeed it has nowine. The kingdoms of Zapage and Komar are about ten or twentydays easy sail from each other, and the kingdoms were in peacewith other when the following event is said, in their ancienthistories, to have occurred. The young and high-spirited king ofKomar was one day in his palace, which looks upon a river muchlike the Euphrates, at the entrance, and is only a day's journeyfrom the sea. One day, in a discourse with his prime minister,the conversation turned upon the glory and population of thekingdom of the Mehrage, and the multitude of its dependentislands, when the king of Komar expressed a wish to see the headof the Mehrage of Zapage on a dish before him. The ministerendeavoured to dissuade him from so unjust and rash an attempt;but the king afterwards proposed the same exploit to the otherofficers of his court. Intelligence of this project was conveyedto the Mehrage, who was a wise and active prince, of consummateexperience, and in the flower of his age; and who immediatelyordered a thousand small ships to be fitted out, with allnecessary arms and provisions, and manned with as many of hisbest troops as they were able to transport; carefully concealingthe purpose of this armament, but giving out that he meant tovisit the different islands under his authority, and even causedletters to be written to the tributary kings of these islands toprepare for his reception. When every thing was in readiness, hesailed over to the kingdom of Komar, the king of which, and allhis courtiers, were a set of effeminate creatures, who didnothing all day long but view their faces in mirrors, and picktheir teeth. The Mehrage landed his troops without delay, andimmediately invested the palace, in which the king was madeprisoner, all his attendants having fled without fighting. Thenthe Mehrage caused proclamation to be made, granting entiresecurity of life and property to all the inhabitants of thecountry; and seating himself on the throne, caused the captiveking and the prime minister to be brought into his presence.Addressing himself to the fallen monarch, he demanded his reasonsfor entertaining a project so unjust, and beyond his power toexecute, and what were his ultimate intentions if he hadsucceeded. To this the king of Komar made no answer; and theMehrage ordered his head to be struck off. To the minister, theMehrage made many compliments, for the good advice he had givenhis master, and ordered him to place the person who best deservedto succeed upon the vacant throne; and then departed to his owndominions, without doing the smallest violence or injury to thekingdom of Komar. The news of this action being reported to thekings of China and the Indies, added greatly to their respect forthe Mehrage; and from that time, it has been the custom for thekings of Komar to prostrate themselves every morning towards thecountry of Zapage, in honour of the Mehrage[7].

[7] It is difficult to say anything certain of thecountries to which this story relates; which may have been someof the islands now called Philipines, or perhaps some of theislands in the straits of Sunda. --Harris.

Such is the opinion of the editor of Harris's Collection. ButI am disposed, especially from the rivers mentioned, to considerZapage as Pegu; and that Malacca, Sumatra, and Java, were thedependent islands; and particularly, that Malacca, as the greatmart of early trade, though actually no island, was the Cala ofAbu Zeid. Siam, or Cambodia may have been the kingdom ofKomar.--E.

All the kings of China and the Indies believe in themetempsychosis, or transmigration of souls, as an article oftheir religion, of which the following story, related by a personof credibility, is a singular instance. One of these princeshaving viewed himself in a mirror, after recovering from thesmall-pox, and noticing how dreadfully his face was disfigured,observed, that no person had ever remained in his body after sucha change, and as the soul passes instantly into another body, hewas determined to separate Ha soul from its present frightfulbody, that he might pass into another. Wherefore he commanded hisnephew to mount the throne, and calling for a sharp and keenscymitar, ordered his own head to be cut off, that his soul mightbe set free, to inhabit a new body. His orders were compliedwith, and his body was burnt, according to the custom of thecountry.

Until the late revolution had reduced them to their presentstate of anarchy, the Chinese were wonderfully regular and exactin every thing relative to government; of which the followingincident affords a striking example. A merchant of Chorassan, whohad dealt largely in Irak, and who embarked from thence forChina, with a quantity of goods, had a dispute at Canfu with aneunuch, who was sent to purchase some ivory, and other goods forthe emperor, and at length the dispute ran so high, that themerchant refused to sell him his goods. This eunuch was keeper ofthe imperial treasury, and presumed so much on the favour andconfidence which he enjoyed with his master, that he took hischoice of all the goods he wanted from the merchant by force,regardless of every thing that the merchant could say. Themerchant went privately from Canfu to Cumdan, the residence ofthe emperor, which is two months journey; and immediately went tothe string of the bell, mentioned in the former section, which hepulled. According to the custom of the country, he was conveyedto a place at the distance of ten days journey, where he wascommitted to prison for two months; after which he was broughtbefore the viceroy of the province, who represented to him, thathe had involved himself in a situation which would tend to hisutter ruin, and even the loss of his life, if he did not speakout the real truth: Because there were ministers and governorsappointed to distribute justice to all strangers, who were readyto see him righted; and if the nature of the wrongs, which he hadto represent, did not appear such as to entitle him to thisapplication to the emperor, he would assuredly be put to death,as a warning to others not to follow his example. The viceroy,therefore, advised him to withdraw his appeal, and to returnimmediately to Canfu. The rule on such occasions was, that, ifthe party should endeavour to recede after this exhortation, hewould have received fifty blows of a bamboo, and have beenimmediately sent out of the country: but if he persisted in hisappeal, he was immediately admitted to an audience of theemperor. The merchant strenuously persisted in his demand forjustice, and was at length admitted to the presence of theemperor, to whom he related the injustice of the eunuch, intaking away his goods by force. Upon this, the merchant wasthrown, into prison, and the emperor ordered his prime ministerto write to the governor of Canfu, to make strict inquiry intothe complaints which he had exhibited against the eunuch, and tomake a faithful report of all the circ*mstances; and he, at thesame time, gave similar orders to three other principal officers,to make the same inquiry, all separate and unknown to eachother.

These officers, who are called of the right, of the left, andof the centre, according to their ranks, have the command of theimperial forces, under the prime minister; they are entrustedwith the guard of the emperors person: and when, he takes thefield, on any military enterprise, or on any other account, theseofficers are stationed near him, each according to his rank. Allof these made accordingly the strictest inquiries into theallegations of the merchant, and all separately gave in theirreports, assuring the emperor that these complaints were just andwell-founded: and these were followed and confirmed by many otherinformations. The eunuch was in consequence deprived of hisoffice of treasurer, find all his effects were confiscated; onwhich occasion the emperor addressed him as follows; "Death oughtto have been your doom, for giving occasion of complaint againstme to this man, who hath come from Chorassan, which is on theborders of my empire. He hath been in the country of the, Arabs,whence he came into the kingdoms of the Indies, and thence intomy empire, seeking his advantage by trade; and you would haveoccasioned him to return across all these regions, saying to allthe people in his way, that he had been abused and stripped ofhis substance in China. In consideration of your former services,and the rank you have held in my household, I grant your life;but as you have not discharged your duty in regard to the living,I will confer upon you the charge of the dead." The eunuch wasaccordingly sent to take the custody of the imperial tombs, andto remain there for the remainder of his life.

Before the late commotions, the good order observed in theadministration of justice, and the majesty of their tribunals,were very admirable. To fill these, the Chinese chose men whowere perfectly versant in the laws; men of sincerity, and zealousin the cause of justice, who were not to be biassed by theinterference of the great, and who always administered the lawswith impartiality, neither oppressing the poor, nor acceptingbribes from the rich. When any one was to be promoted to theoffice of principal judge, he was previously sent to all thechief cities of the empire, to remain a month or two in each,inquiring minutely into the various customs and affairs of thepeople, and informing himself of all such persons as were worthyof being credited in their testimony, that his judgment might beregulated in the future discharge of his high office by thispreliminary knowledge. After going through all the cities in thismanner, and making some stay in those which are mostconsiderable, he repaired to the imperial court, and was investedwith the dignity of supreme judge. To him the nomination of allthe other judges was confided, after acquainting the emperor withthe names of all who, in his estimation, were most worthy ofexercising jurisdiction in the various cities and provinces.Every day, the supreme judge causes proclamation to be made, thatof any man has been wronged by the viceroy or governor, or by anyof his relations or officers, or any other person, he shallreceive ample justice. A viceroy or governor is never degraded,except by letters issued from the council, or divan of kings, andthis is done only for some flagrant malversation, or for therefusal or delay of justice. The posts of judicature beingconferred upon none but men of probity and justice, good order isefectually maintained.

The province of Chorassan is almost on the borders of China.From China to Sogd is about two months journey, throughimpracticable deserts of sand, where there is no water; for whichreason the Chorassanians can make no irruptions into China. Themost westerly province of China is Medu, which borders onThibet, and the two nations are often at war. A person who hadbeen in China, informed us, that he had seen a man at Canfu, whohad traveled from Samare, all the way on foot, through allthe cities in China, with a vessel of musk on his back for sale;which he might easily do, as the part of Thibet, which producesmusk, is contiguous to China. The Chinese carry off as many ofthe animals which produce musk as they can procure; but the muskof Thibet is far better than that of China, because the animalfeeds on aromatic plants in the mountains of Thibet, while inChina it has to subsist upon the ordinary pastures; and becausethe inhabitants of Thibet preserve their cods of musk in itsnatural state of purity, while the Chinese adulterate all thatgets into their hands; for which reason the musk of Thibet is ingreat request among the Arabs. The most exquisite of all thesorts of musk, is that which the musk animals leave behind them,in rubbing themselves on the rocks of their native mountains. Thehumour whence the musk is generated, falls down towards the navelof the animal, where it gathers into tumors like grumous blood;and when this tumor is ripe, it produces a painful itching, onwhich the animal rubs himself against rocks or stones till hebursts the tumor, and the contents run out and coagulate on thestone; after which, the wound heals, and the humour gathers againas before. There are men in Thibet who make it their business tocollect this species of musk, which they preserve in bladders,and which, having ripened, naturally surpasses all others ingoodness, just as ripe fruit exceeds in flavour that which ispulled green. There is another way of procuring musk, either byensnaring the animals, or shooting them with arrows; but thehunters often cut out the bags before the musk is ripe or fullyelaborated, in which case, the musk at first has a bad scent,till the humour thickens, after which it turns to good musk,though this sometimes takes a long while. The musk animal is likeour roebuck, his skin and colour the same, with slender legs, andsmooth slightly bent horns; having on each side two small whiteteeth, about half a finger-length, which rise about his muzzle,not much unlike the form of the teeth of the elephant, and bywhich he is distinguished from other roebucks.

The letters from the emperor of China, to the viceroys,governors, eunuchs, and lieutenants, are conveyed on post-horses,which are distinguished by cut tails, and these are disposed atregular stations, all over the empire, almost like the postsamong the Arabs. In China, every man, from the emperor to themeanest of the people, makes water standing [8]; and for thispurpose, persons of dignity have gilded hollow canes, a cubitlong, to convey their water to a distance. They are of opinion,that pains in the kidneys, strangury, and even the stone, areoccasioned by urining in a sitting posture, as the reins cannotfree themselves absolutely from evil humours, except byevacuating in an erect position. They do not mould the heads ofnew born infants into a round form as we do, as they allege thatthis practice injures the brain, and impairs the senses. Theysuffer their hair to grow, which is carefully combed. The nationis divided into tribes, like those of the Arabs and some others,and no man ever marries in his own tribe: just as the children ofThummim among the Arabs never take a wife from that tribe. Or,for example, a man of the tribe of Robayat marries a daughter ofthe tribe Modzar, and a Modzar marries a Robayat; and they are ofopinion, that such alliances add to the dignity and power oftheir children.

[8] This alludes to the custom of the Arabs, andother orientals, to squat upon this occasion.--E.

In the kingdom of the Balhara, and all the other kingdoms ofthe Indies, there are men who burn themselves in consequence oftheir belief in the doctrine of transmigration. When a man hascome to this resolution, he asks leave of the king, which beingobtained, he goes in procession round all the public squares ofthe city, and proceeds to the place appointed, where a pile ofdry wood is ready for the purpose, having many persons all roundto feed the fire, which blazes prodigiously. At last the personcomes forward, preceded by a number of instruments, and movesround the pile in the midst of his friends and relations. Duringthis ceremony, some person places on his head a garland of straw,or dry herbs, filled with burning coals, on which they poursandrach, which takes fire as strongly as naphtha;notwithstanding of which, he continues his progress withoutbetraying any sense of pain, or change of countenance, though thecrown of his head be all on fire, and the stench of his burningflesh is felt all round. At length, he comes up to the pile, andthrows himself in, where he is soon reduced to ashes. A credibleperson says, he once saw an Indian burn himself; and when he camenear the pile, he drew out a cangiar, or sharp knife, with whichhe ripped himself open, and pulling out the lap of his liver withhis left hand, cut off a piece of it with his cangiar, and gaveit to one of his brothers, talking all the time with the mostinvincible contempt of death and torture, and at length leapedinto the fire, in his passage to hell.

At the accession of some kings of the Indies, the followingceremony is observed: A large quantity of rice is dressed andspread out upon leaves of mousa, in presence of the king. Thenthree or four hundred persons come, of their own accord, withoutany constraint whatever; and after the king has eaten of therice, he gives some of it to all that come forwards insuccession, which they eat in his presence; and by this ceremony,they engage to burn themselves on the day when this king dies oris slain, and they punctually fulfil their promise.

In the mountainous parts of India, there are tribes who differlittle from those we call Kanisians and Jelidiansand who are addicted to all manner of superstition and vice;between whom, and the inhabitants of the people on the coast,there subsists great emulation, each daring the others to imitatethem in the performance of strange superstitious tortures. Thereonce came a man from the mountains on this errand, who gathered amultitude of the inhabitants of the coast to the followingstrange exhibition, daring them to imitate him, or otherwise toacknowledge themselves overcome. He sat down in a place plantedwith canes, and caused a strong one to be forcibly bent down, towhich he strongly fastened the hairs of his head. "Now," said he,"I am going to cut off my own head with this cangiar; and as soonas it is severed from my body, let go the cane, and when my headflies up into the air, I will laugh, and you shall hear me." Butthe people of the coast had not courage to imitate him[9]. Theperson who related this, did it without emotion or wonder; and inour times, these facts are generally known, as this part of theIndies is in the neighbourhood of the country of the Arabs, andwe hear from thence every day.

[9] It is presumable, that this was a mere bravado,in the full confidence that no one would be found sufficientlyfoolhardy to engage to follow the example. It is needless to say,that the promise of laughing aloud could not have been performed;so that any one might have safely accepted the challenge,conditioning for the full performance of thevaunt.--E.

In the Indies, they burn their dead; and it is customary formen and women to desire their families to throw them into thefire or to drown them, when they are grown old, or perceivethemselves to sink under the pressure of disease, firmlybelieving that they are to return into other bodies. It has oftenhappened, in the isle of Serendib, where there is a mine ofprecious stones in a mountain, a pearl-fishery, and otherextraordinary things, that an Indian would come into the bazar ormarket-place, armed with a kris, and seize upon the mostwealthy merchant there present, leading him out of the market,through a throng of people, holding the kris to his throat, whileno one dared to attempt his rescue, as the Indian was sure, insuch a case, to kill the merchant, and make away with himself;and when he had got the merchant out of the city, the Indianobliged him to redeem his life with a sum of money. To put an endto such outrages, an order was issued to seize such trespassers;but on attempting to execute this order, several merchants werekilled, both Arabs and Indians, and the order was obliged to berepealed. In the mountains of Serendib, precious stones are foundof various colours, red, green, and yellow[10], most of which arewashed from caverns or crevices, by rains and torrents. In theseplaces, the king has officers to watch over the people who gatherthe precious stones. In some places, these are dug out of mines,like the ores of metals, and the rock has often to be broken tocome at the precious stones which it contains. The king ofSerendib makes laws concerning the religion and government of thecountry; and there are assemblies held of doctors and learnedmen, like those of Hadithis among the Arabs, to which theIndians repair, and write down what they hear of the lives oftheir prophets, and the expositions of their laws. In thisisland, there are temples in which great sums of money areexpended on incense; and in one of these temples, there is agreat idol all of pure gold, but concerning the weight of whichtravellers are not agreed. In the same island, there are greatnumbers of Jews, and persons of many other sects, evenTanouis, and Manichees, the kings permitting the freeexercise of every religion. At the end of the island are valliesof great extent, extending quite to the sea, called GabSerendib, of extreme beauty, and chequered with groves andplains, water and meads, and blessed with a wholesome air. Asheep may be there bought for half a dram, and for the same asmuch of their drink, made of palm-honey, boiled and prepared withtari, or toddi, as will suffice for many persons. Theinhabitants are much addicted to gaming, particularly draughts.Their other principal diversion is co*ck-fighting, their co*cksbeing very large, and better provided with spurs than ordinary;and besides this, the Indians arm them with blades of iron, inthe form of cangiars or daggers. On these combats, they bet goldand silver, lands or farms; and they game with such fury, thatdebauchees, and desperate people, often stake the ends of theirfingers, when their other property is exhausted. While at playfor this extraordinary stake, they have a fire by them, on whicha small pot of walnut oil, or oil of sesamum, is kept boiling;and when one has won a game, he chops off the end of the loser'sfinger, who immediately dips the stump into the boiling oil, tostem the blood; and some will persist so obstinately, as to haveall their fingers thus mutilated. Some even will take a burningwick, and apply it to some member, till the scent of the burntflesh is felt all around, while the stoic continues to play,without betraying the least sense of pain. Both men and women areso exceedingly addicted to debauchery, that a foreign merchanthas been known to send even for a king's daughter, to attend himat the fishing grounds, in quality of mistress; wherefore theMahomedan doctors at Siraff, strictly warn young people not to gothere.

[10] Rubies, emeralds, and topazes.--E.

In the Indies there are heavy rains, called jasara,which last incessantly day and night, for three months everyyear. The Indians prepare against these to the best of theirpower, as they shut themselves up in their houses during thewhole time, all work being then performed within doors; andduring this time, they are subject to ulcers in the soles oftheir feet, occasioned by the damps. Yet, these rains are ofindispensable necessity; as, when they fail, the Indians arereduced to the utmost want, as their rice fields are watered onlyby the rains. It never rains during summer. The Indians havedoctors, or devout men, named Bramins. They have poets also, whocompose poems filled with the grossest flattery to their kingsand great men. They have also astrologers, philosophers,soothsayers, men who observe the flight of birds, and others whopretend to the calculation of nativities, particularly at Kaduge,a great city in the kingdom of Gozar[11]. There are certain mencalled Bicar, who go all their lives naked, and suffertheir hair to grow till it hides their hinder parts. They alsoallow their nails to grow, till they become pointed and sharplike swords. Each has a string round his neck, to which hangs anearthen dish, and when hungry, they go to any house, whence theinhabitants cheerfully supply them with boiled rice. They havemany laws and religious precepts, by which they imagine that theyplease God. Part of their devotion consists in buildingkans, or inns, on the highways, for the accommodation oftravellers; where also certain pedlars, or small dealers, areestablished, from whom the passengers may purchase what theystand in need of. There are also public women, who exposethemselves to travellers. Some of these are called women ofthe idol, the origin of which institution is this: When awoman has laid herself under a vow, that she may have children,if she happens to produce a handsome daughter, she carries herchild to the bod[12], so the idol is called. When thisgirl has attained the proper age, she takes an apartment in thetemple, and waits the arrival of strangers, to whom sheprostitutes herself for a certain hire, and delivers her gains tothe priest for the support of the temple. All these things theyreckon among their meritorious deeds. Praised be God who hathfreed us from the sins which defile the people involved inunbelief!

[11] Obviously Canoge, in Bengal.--E.

[12] Buddah, the principal god of an extensive sect,now chiefly confined to Ceylon, and India beyond theGanges.--E.

Not very far from Almansur there is a famous idol calledMultan, to which the Indians resort in pilgrimage, from theremotest parts. Some of the pilgrims bring the odoriferous woodcalled Hud ul Camruni, so called from Camrun, where there isexcellent aloes-wood. Some of this is worth 200 dinars themawn, and is commonly marked with a seal, to distinguish it fromanother kind of less value. This the devotees give to thepriests, that it may be burnt before the idol, but merchantsoften buy it from these priests. There are some Indians, makingprofession of piety, who go in search of unknown islands, orthose newly discovered, on purpose to plant cocoa nut trees, andto sink wells for the use of ships. There are people at Oman whocross to these islands that produce the cocoa nut trees, ofplanks made from which they build ships, sewing the planks withyarns made from the bark of the tree. The mast is made of thesame wood, the sails are formed from the leaves, and the bark isworked up into cordage: and having thus completed their vessel,they load her with cocoa nuts, which they bring to Oman forsale.

The country of the Zinges, or Negroes, is of vast extent[13].These people commonly sow millet, which is the chief food of thenegroes. They have also sugar-canes and other trees, but theirsugar is very black. The negroes are divided among a great numberof kings, who are eternally at war with each other. Their kingsare attended by certain men called Moharamin, each of whom has aring in his nose, and a chain round his neck. When about to joinbattle with the enemy, each of the Moharamin takes the end of hisneighbour's chain and passes it through the ring in his own nose,by which the whole are chained together, so that no one canpossibly run away. Deputies are then sent to endeavour to makepeace, and if that is done, the chains are unfastened, and theyretire without fighting. But otherwise, when once the sword isunsheathed, every one of these men must conquer or die on thespot[14].

[13] The author makes here an abrupt transition tothe eastern coast of Africa, and calls it the country of theZinges; congeneric with the country of Zanguebar, and includingAzania, Ajen, and Adel, on the north; and Inhambane, Sabia,Sofala, Mocaranga, Mozambique, and Querimba, to the south; allknown to, and frequented by the Arabs.--E.

[14] This incredible story may have originated froman ill-told account of the war bulls of the Caffres, exaggeratedinto fable, after the usual manner of the Arabs, always fond ofthe marvellous.--E.

These people have a profound veneration for the Arabs; andwhen they meet any one, they fall down before him, saying, "Thisman comes from the land of dates," of which they are very fond.They have preachers among them, who harangue with wonderfulability and perseverance. Some of these profess a religious life,and are covered with the skins of leopards or apes. One of thesem*n will gather a multitude of people, to whom he will preach allday long concerning God, or about the actions of their ancestors.From this country they bring the leopards skins, called Zingiet,which are very large and broad, and ornamented with red and blackspots.

In this sea is the island of Socotra, whence come the bestaloes. This island is near the land of the Zinges, or Negroes,and is likewise near Arabia; and most of its inhabitants areChristians, which is thus accounted for: When Alexander hadsubdued the empire of Persia, his preceptor, Aristotle, desiredhim to search out the island of Socotra, which afforded aloes,and without which the famous medicine Hiera[15] could not becompounded; desiring him likewise to remove the natives and toplant there a colony of Greeks, who might supply Syria, Greece,and Egypt with aloes. This was done accordingly; and when Godsent Jesus Christ into the world, the Greeks of this isleembraced the Christian faith, like the rest of their nation, andhave persevered in it to this day, like all the other inhabitantsof the islands[16].

[15] It is somewhat singular to find this ancientArabian author mentioning the first word of the famous HieraPicra, or Holy Powder; a compound stomachic purge of aloesand spices, probably combined by the ancients with many otheringredients, as it is by the moderns with rhubarb, though nowonly given in tincture or solution with wine or spirits. Thestory of Alexander rests only on its own Arabianbasis.--E.

[16] Meaning, doubtless, the isles of theMediterranean.--E.

In the first book, no mention is made of the sea whichstretches away to the right, as ships depart from Oman and thecoast of Arabia, to launch out into the great sea: and the authordescribes only the sea on the left hand, in which arecomprehended the seas of India and China. In this sea, to theright as you leave Oman, is the country of Sihar or Shihr, wherefrankincense grows, and other countries possessed by the nationsof Ad, Hamyar, Jorham, and Thabatcha, who have the Sonna, inArabic of very ancient date, but differing in many things fromwhat is in the hands of the Arabs, and containing many traditionsunknown to us. They have no villages, and live a very hard andmiserably wandering life; but their country extends almost as faras Aden and Judda on the coast of Yaman, or Arabia the happy.From Judda, it stretches up into the continent, as far as thecoast of Syria, and ends at Kolzum. The sea at this place isdivided by a slip of land, which God hath fixed as a line ofseparation between the two seas[17]. From Kolzum the seastretches along the coast of the Barbarians, to the west coast,which is opposite to Yaman, and then along the coast of Ethiopia,from whence we have the leopard skins of Barbary[18], which arethe best of all, and the most skilfully dressed; and lastly,along the coast of Zeilah, whence come excellent amber andtortoiseshell.

[17] Referring, obviously, to the Isthmus ofSuez.--E.

[18] This does not refer to the coast of Barbary inthe Mediterranean, but must mean the coast of the barbarian Arabsor Bedouins.--E.

When the Siraff ships arrive in the Red Sea, they go nofarther than Judda, whence their cargo is transported to Cairo,or Kahira by ships of Kolsum, the pilots of which areacquainted with the navigation of the upper end of this sea,which is full of rocks up to the water's edge; because, also,along the coast there are no kings[19], and scarcely anyinhabitants; and because, every night ships are obliged to putinto some place for safety, for fear of striking on the rocks, ormust ride all night at anchor, sailing only in the day-time. Thissea is likewise subject to very thick fogs, and to violent galesof wind, and is therefore of very dangerous navigation, anddevoid of any safe or pleasant anchorage. It is not, like theseas of India and China, whose bottom is rich with pearls andambergris; whose mountains are stored with gold, precious stones,and ivory; whose coasts produce ebony, redwood, aloes, camphor,nutmegs, cloves, sandal, and all other spices and aromatics;where parrots and peaco*cks are birds of the forest, and in whichmusk and civet are collected in abundance: so productive, inshort, are these shores of articles of infinite variety, andinestimable value, that it were vain to endeavour to make anyenumeration.

[19] This singular expression probably signifies thatthe inhabitants are without law or regulargovernment.--E.

Ambergris is thrown upon this coast by the flux of the sea,but its origin is unknown. It is found on the coast of theIndies, but the best, which is of a bluish white, and in roundlumps, is got upon the Barbarian coast: or on the confines of theland of the Negroes, towards Sihar and that neighbourhood. Theinhabitants of that country have camels trained for the purpose,on which they ride along the shore in moonshine nights, and whenthe camels perceive a piece of amber, he bends his knees, onwhich the rider dismounts, and secures his prize. There isanother kind which swims on the surface of the sea in greatlumps, sometimes as big as the body of an ox, or somewhat less.When a certain fish, named Tal, of the whale tribe, seesthese floating lumps, he swallows them, and is thereby killed;and when the people, who are accustomed to this fishery, see awhale floating on the surface, they know that this whale hasswallowed ambergris, and going out in their boats, they darttheir harpoons into its body, and tow it on shore, and split theanimal down the back, to get out the ambergris. What is foundabout the belly of the whale is commonly spoiled by the wet, andhas an unpleasant scent; but the ambergris which is notcontaminated by the ordure in the belly of the whale, isperfectly good[20].

[20] This curious account of the origin of ambergris,was revived again about twenty-five years ago, and published inthe Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, asa new discovery. The only difference in the modern account of thematter is, that the ambergris originates within the alimentarycanal of the whale, in consequence, probably, of some disease;and that the lumps which are found afloat, or cast on shore, hadbeen extruded by these animals.--E.

It is not unusual to employ the vertebrae of this species ofwhale as stools; and it is said, there are many houses in thevillage of Tain, ten leagues from Siraff, in which the lintels ofthe doors are made of whale ribs. An eye-witness told me that hewent to see a whale which had been cast ashore, near Siraff, andfound the people mounting on its back by means of ladders; thatthey dug pits in different parts of his body, and when the sunhad melted the grease into oil, they collected this, and sold itto the masters of ships, who mixed it up with some other matter,used by seamen for the purpose of serving the bottoms of theirvessels, and securing the seams of the planks, to prevent or tostop leaks. This whale-oil sells for a great deal of money; andthe bones of the whale are sold by the druggists of Bagdat andBassora.

The pearl oyster is at first a small thin tender substance,resembling the leaves of the plant called Anjedana, andswims on the surface of the sea, where it sticks to the sides ofships under water. It there hardens, grows larger, and becomescovered by a shell; after which, it becomes heavy, and falls tothe bottom of the sea, where it subsists, and grows in a way ofwhich we are ignorant. The included animal resembles a piece ofred flesh, or like the tongue of an animal towards the root,having no bones, veins, or sinews. One opinion of the productionof pearls in this shell-fish is, that the oyster rises to thesurface when it rains, and, by gaping, catches the drops of rain,which harden into pearls. The more likely opinion is, that thepearls are generated within the body of the oyster, for most ofthem are fixed, and not moveable. Such as are loose are calledseed pearls.

An Arab came once to Bassora with a pearl of great value,which he shewed to a merchant, and was astonished when he got solarge a sum for it as an hundred drams of silver; with which hepurchased corn to carry back to his own country. But the merchantcarried his acquisition to Bagdad, where he sold it for a largesum of money, by which he was afterwards enabled to extend hisdealings to a great amount. The Arab gave the following accountof the way in which he had found this large pearl: Going one dayalong the shore, near Saman, in the district of Bahrein[21], hesaw a fox lying dead, with something hanging at his muzzle, whichheld him fast, which he discovered to be a white lucid shell, inwhich he found this pearl. He concluded that the oyster had beenthrown ashore by a tempest, and lay with its shell open on thebeach, when the fox, attracted by the smell, had thrust in hismuzzle to get at the meat, on which the oyster closed its shell,and held him fast till he died: for it is a property of theoyster never to let go its hold, except forcibly opened, bythrusting in an iron instrument between the shells, carefullyguarding its included pearl, as a mother preserves her child.

[21] Bahrein is an island in the Persian gulf, on theArabian shore, still celebrated for its pearlfishery.--E.

The kings of the Indies wear ear-rings of gold, set withprecious stones, and they wear collars of great value, adornedwith gems of various colours, chiefly green and red; yet pearlsare most esteemed, and their value surpasses that of all otherjewels, and these they hoard up in their treasuries, with theirmost precious things. The grandees of their courts, their greatofficers, and the military commanders, wear similar jewels intheir collars. Their dress is a kind of half vest, and they carryparasols made of peaco*cks feathers to shade them from the sun,and are surrounded by great trains of servants.

Among the Indians, there are certain people who never eat twoout of the same dish or even at the same table, on account ofsome religious opinion. When these come to Siraf, and are invitedby our considerable merchants, were there a hundred of them moreor less, they must each have a separate dish, without the leastcommunication with the rest. Their kings and principal personshave fresh tables made for them every day, with little dishes andplates wove of the cocoa nut leaf, out of which they eat theirvictuals. And when their meal is over, the table dishes andplates are all thrown into the water, together with the fragmentsof their food; so that they must have a fresh service for everymeal.

To the Indies the merchants used formerly to carry the dinars,called sindiat, or gold coins of the Sind, which passedthere for three of our dinars, or even more. Thither also werecarried emeralds from Egypt, which were much used for setting inrings.

CHAPTER V.

Travels of Rabbi Benjamin of Tudela,through Europe, Asia, and Africa, from Spain to China, betweenA.D. 1160 and 1173[1].

[1] Harris, I. 545. Forster, 91.

This Spanish Jew was the son of Rabbi Jonas, of Tudela, asmall town in Navarre. According to the testimony of RabbiAbraham Zuka, a celebrated professor of astronomy at Salamanca,it is supposed that Rabbi Benjamin travelled from 1160 to 1173.Young Barratier, a prodigy of early literary genius, asserts thatBenjamin never made the journey at all, but patched up the wholework from contemporary writers. There is no doubt that his workis full of incredible tales, yet many of the anomalies itcontains, may have proceeded from mistakes of copyists;exaggeration was the taste of the times, and other travellers whoare believed actually to have travelled, are not behind him inthe marvellous. These often relate the miracles of pretendedChristian saints, while he details the wonders performed byJewish Rabbis. He contains however, many curious pieces ofinformation, not to be found anywhere else, and it seemsnecessary and proper to give a full abstract of his travels inthis place.

Travelling by land to Marseilles, Benjamin embarked for Genoa,and proceeded to Rome, from whence he went through the kingdom ofNaples to Otranto, where he crossed over to Corfu and Butrinto,and journeyed by land through Greece to Constantinople, havingpreviously visited the country of Wallachia. All this takes upthe four first chapters, which are omitted in Harris. In thefifth, he gives an account of the city and Court ofConstantinople, as follows: Constantinople is an exceedinglygreat city, the capital of the Javanites[2], or the nation calledGreeks, and the principal seat of the emperor Emanuel[3], whosecommands are obeyed by twelve kings, for every one of whom thereare several palaces in Constantinople, and they have fortressesand governments in other places of the empire, and to them thewhole land is subject. The principal of these is the Apripus,Praepositus, or prime minister; the second, MegaDumastukitz, [Greek: Mezas Domestichos], or great chamberlain;the third Dominot, Dominos, or lord: but his peculiaroffice or department does not appear; the fourth Mackducus,[Greek: Mezas Dochas], great duke or high Admiral; the fifthIknomus Megli, [Greek: Oichonomos mezas], or lord high steward ofthe household; and the rest have names like unto these[4].Constantinople is eighteen miles in circuit, half of it being onthe sea, and the other half towards the continent; it stands ontwo arms of the sea, into one of which the sea flows from Russia,and into the other from Spain; and its port is frequented by manytraders, from the countries and provinces of Babylon, Senaar,Media, Persia, Egypt, Canaan, Russia, Hungary, Psianki[5],Buria, Lombardy, and Spain.

[2] So named as descended from Javan: the Jewishwriters affecting to employ scripture names for modern countriesand nations.--E.

[3] Manuel Comnenes, who reigned from 1143 to1180.--E.

[4] These names are corrupt orthographies of theGreek titles in the Hebrew. Manuel being an emperor, Benjaminnames all his great officers kings.--E.

[5] Psianki may, perhaps, be Poland, and BuriaBavaria.--E.

The city is extremely populous, and hath none to compare withit, except Bagdat, the mighty city of the Ismaelites[6]. In it isthe magnificent temple of St Sophia, where dwells the patriarchof the Greeks, who do not agree in doctrine with the pope ofRome. This temple contains as many altars as there are days inthe year, and it has a revenue beyond all estimation great, fromthe offerings and riches brought continually from diverscountries, islands, forts, castles, and places, so that thewealth of no other temple on earth can be compared to the richeswhich it contains. In the middle of this temple there are pillarsof gold and silver, huge candlesticks, lanterns, lamps, and otherornaments of these precious metals, more than can be reckoned.Close to this temple there is a place set apart for the diversionof the emperor, called the Hippodrome, where great spectacles arerepresented yearly, on the birth-day of Jesus of Nazareth, inwhich men in the habits of all the various people of the earth,appear before the emperor and empress, with lions, bears,leopards, and wild asses, which are made to fight together; andin no country on earth are such princely sports to be seen.

[6] The Arabs, so called from their supposedancestor, Ismael.--E.

Besides the palace left him by his ancestors, Manuel has builtone for himself, called Bilbernae[7], the pillars and walls ofwhich are overlaid with beaten gold and silver, on which all thewars of his ancestors are represented. In this palace there is athrone of gold and precious stones, over which a golden crown,enriched with precious stones and pearls, is suspended on high,the value of which is beyond computation, and its lustre sogreat, that it shines, and may be seen in the night. There areother things in this palace of such value and profusion as arequite incredible, and immense tributes are brought yearly intoit, by which the towers are filled with scarlet and purplegarments and gold, so that the like example of sumptuousbuildings, and enormous riches, can nowhere else be found in theworld.

[7] Perhaps Blachernae.--E.

It is affirmed, that the revenue of the city only, from itsmarkets, harbour, and tribute of merchants, amount to 20,000crowns daily. The Greek inhabitants of this city and country areexceedingly rich in gold and jewels, and are sumptuously dressedin crimson garments, intermingled with gold, or splendidlyembroidered, and are all carried on horses, as if they were thechildren of kings. The country itself is very extensive, andabounds with all sorts of fruits, and has great plenty of corn,wine, and cattle of all kinds, and a finer country is nowhere tobe found. The people are learned also, and skilful in thephilosophy of the Greeks: but giving themselves up entirely toluxury, they eat and drink every man under his own vine, andunder his own fig-tree. They have mercenary soldiers, hired fromall nations, whom they call Barbarians, to fight against thesoldan, king of the children of Togorma, who are commonly calledTurks; for the Grecians themselves, through sloth and luxury,have become quite effeminate and unfit for wars, and entirelydevoted to pleasure.

No Jews are permitted to dwell in the city, but are obliged toreside in Pera, on the other side of the sea of Sophia, and arenot even allowed to come to the city, except in boats, for thesake of commerce. In Pera there are about 2000 Jewish Rabbinists,disciples of the wise men; among whom are Abtalion the Great,Rabbi Abdias, Aaron Cuspus, Joseph Starginus, and Eliakim thegovernor, who have the chief authority. Besides these, there are500 Karaites[8], who are separated from the Rabbinists by a wall.Among the Jews there are some manufacturers of silken garments,and many very rich merchants. No Jew is permitted to ride onhorseback, except Solomon, the Egyptian, who is physician to theEmperor, and through whose interest the Jews are comforted andeased in their captivity, which is very grievous; for they aremuch hated by the Grecians, who make no distinction between thegood and the evil among them, and insult and beat them in thestreets. They are worst used by the tanners, who pour out thefilthy water in which they have dressed their skins into thestreets before their doors. Yet, among the Jews there are somevery rich men, as I have said before; good and merciful men, whoobserve the commandments, and who patiently endure the miseriesof the captivity.

[8] The Karaites were a sect among the Jews, whoconfined their observances and religious belief to the preceptsof Moses, while the Rabbinists followed all the wild fancies ofthe Talmud. An excellent account of these sects is to be found inthe Lettres Juives, or Jewish Spy, by the Marquisd'Argens.--E.

From Constantinople, Benjamin continued his journey to Tyre,Jerusalem, and the Holy Land, and thence to Damascus, Balbeck,and Palmyra, which he calls Tadmor, and in which, he says, therethen were 2000 Jews. He next gives an account of Bagdat, thecourt of the caliph, and the condition of the Jews there. Heafterwards gives an account of a country which he calls Thema,where he places a whole nation of Jews, which some have deemed anentire forgery[9]. He next proceeds to Botzra, Balsora orBassora, on the Tigris, and thence to Persia, of which he givesthe following account.

[9] Perhaps only an exaggerated account of someJewish independent tribe in Arabia, of which there were once aconsiderable number, as particularly mentioned in the History ofMahomet.--E.

The river Samoura[10] is esteemed the limits of the kingdom ofPersia, and near it stands the city of the same name, in whichthere are 1500 Jews. Here is the sepulchre of Esdras, the scribeand priest, who died in this place on his return from Jerusalemto the court of Artaxerxes. Our people have built a greatsynagogue beside his tomb, and the Ismaelites, Arabians, orMahometans, have built a mosque close by, as they have a greatrespect for Esdras and the Jews. It is four miles from hence toChuzestan, which is the same with the ancient city of Elam, nowalmost ruined and uninhabited. At one end, surrounded by ruins,is the castle of Susa, formerly the palace of Ahasuerus, of whichthere are still some remains. In this place there are 7000 Jewsand fourteen synagogues, before one of which stands the tomb ofDaniel. The river Tigris[11] runs through this city, over whichthere is a bridge. All the Jews on one side of the river are veryrich, having well filled shops, and carry on great trade, whilethose on the other side are very poor, having neither market,shops, gardens, or orchards. This caused them once to make aninsurrection, from a notion that the glory and riches of those onthe other side of the river was occasioned by their having thesepulchre of the prophet Daniel on their side. The insurgents,therefore, demanded to have his tomb transferred to their side,which was vehemently opposed by the others, and war ensuedbetween them: But both parties growing weary of the war, it wasagreed that the coffin of Daniel should remain one year on oneside of the river, and next year on the other. This treaty wasobserved for some time, but was cancelled in the sequel bySanigar-Shah, son to the great shah of Persia, who rules overforty-five princes. This great king is called in Arabic SultanPhars Al-Chabir. His empire extends from the river Samoura toSamarcand, the river Gozan, the province of Gisbor, including thecities of the Medes, the mountains of Haphton, and to theprovince of Thibet, in the forests of which country are found theanimals which produce musk; and the empire is four months andfour days journey in length.

[10] Probably the Ahwaz, as he seems to have gonefrom Bassora.--E.

[11] This must be an error in the author, as theTigris does not come near that city.--E.

Sangiar being at Elam, saw the elders of the peopletransporting the coffin of Daniel from one side of the river tothe other, attended by an immense crowd of Jews and Ismaelites;and, being informed of the cause, gave orders that the coffinshould be suspended in a glass case, by chains of iron, from themiddle of the bridge, and that a spacious synagogue should beerected in the same place, open to all, whether Jews or Gentiles,who might incline to pray there; and he commanded, from reverencefor Daniel, that no fish should be taken in the river for a mileabove or below the bridge.

From Elam to Robat-bar are three days journey, where dwell20,000 Israelites, among whom are many disciples of the wise men,some of them being very rich; but they live under the authorityof a strange prince. In two days journey more is the river Vanth,near which dwell 4000 Jews. Four days journey farther is thecountry of Molhat, full of strong mountains, the inhabitants ofwhich obey an elder who resides in the country of Alchesisin, andthey do not believe the doctrine of Mahomet. Among this peoplethere are four colleges of Jews, who go forth to war with theinhabitants, invading the neighbouring countries, and drive awaygreat spoil; for they are not under the dominion of the king ofPersia. The Jews in this country are disciples of the wise men,and obey the head of the captivity of Babylon. In five daysjourney you reach Omaria, where are 25,000 Israelites, and herebegin the synagogues of the mountains of Haphton, which exceedone hundred in number, and in this place the country of Mediabegins. These Jews are of the first captivity, carried away bySalmanazar; but they speak the Chaldean language, and among themare the disciples of the wise men. The chief city is Omaria, andall this country is under the dominion of Persia, to which theinhabitants pay tribute. The tribute for males above fifteenyears old, in all the country of the Ismaelites, is one goldamir, or half-a-crown of our money.

About twelve years ago there arose, in the city of Omaria, aman named David Elroi, who was the disciple of Chafdai, the headof the captivity, and of Jacob the chief of the Levites atBagdat. David was very learned in the law of Moses, and in thebooks of doctrine, and in all wisdom, even in the languages ofthe Ismaelites, and in the books of the Magi and the enchanters;and he took it into his head to gather together the Jews whodwelt in the mountains of Haphton, and to make war against theking of Persia, and to go to Jerusalem and win it by assault. Forthis purpose he endeavoured to draw the Jews to his party by manydeceitful signs, affirming that he was sent from God to free themfrom the yoke of the nations, and to restore them to the holycity; and he succeeded in persuading many that he was theMessiah[12].

[12] This story is told by other Jewish writers, butwith some unimportant variations; and there have been many suchpretended Messiahs, who persuaded the Jews of the east intorevolts, for which consult Basnage, Histoire desJuifs.--Harris.

Hearing of this insurrection, the king of Persia sent forDavid, who went to him without fear, and even avowed himself tobe king of the Jews, on which he was thrown into prison in thecity of Dabrestan, near the great river Gozan. After this theking held a great council of his princes and ministers, toconsult how to put an end to this insurrection of the Jews, andDavid made his appearance there, unseen of any but the king. Theking asked, "Who hath delivered thee from prison and brought theehere?" To whom David answered, "Mine own wisdom, for I fear notthee or any of thy servants." Then the king commanded hisservants to seize him; but they said the voice was heard by all,but they saw not David. Then David cried out with a loud voice,"Lo! I go my way." And he walked out, and the king followed him,and all his servants followed the king, but they saw no one.Coming to the bank of the river, David spread his handkerchief onthe waters, and he passed over dry, and then he was seen of allwho were present; and they endeavoured to pursue him in boats,but all in vain; and every one marvelled, and said that noenchanter could be compared to this man.

David during that day travelled a ten days journey, and,coming to Omaria, related all that had befallen him; and when thepeople were amazed, he attributed all that had befallen him tohis knowledge of the ineffable name of Jehovah[13]. The king sentmessengers to inform the caliph of Bagdat of what had happened,requesting that he would get David restrained from his seditiouspractices, by order from the head of the captivity, and the chiefrulers of the assembly of the Jews; otherwise threatening totaldestruction to all the Jews in his dominions. All the synagoguesin Persia, being in great fear, wrote to the head of thecaptivity, and the assembly of elders at Bagdat, to the samepurpose; and they wrote to David, commanding him to desist fromhis enterprize, under pain of being excommunicated and cut offfrom among the people of Israel. But all was in vain, for Davidpersisted in his wicked course; till at length Zinaldin, a kingof the Togarmim, or Turks, in subjection to the king of Persia,persuaded the father-in-law of David, by a bribe of ten thousandpieces of gold, to kill him privately, and he thrust Davidthrough with a sword in his bed, while asleep. Yet was not theanger of the king of Persia pacified towards the Jews of themountains, until the head of the captivity went and appeased himwith mild and wise speeches, and by the gift of an hundredtalents of gold; since which time there has been peace and quietin the land.

[13] The whole secret of this miracle may be easilyexplained. David escaped from prison, and told all the rest ofthe story to the ignorant and credulous Jews of Omaria, from whomthe fable has been handed down to Benjamin and other believingrelaters.--E.

From these mountains it is twelve days journey to Hamadan, thechief city of Media, in which there are 50,000 Jews, and near oneof their synagogues are the sepulchres of Mordecai and Esther.Dabrestan, near the river Gozan, is four days journey fromHamadan, and 4000 Jews dwell there. From thence it is seven daysjourney to Ispahan, which is a very great city and the capital ofthe whole country, being twelve miles in circumference. In thiscity there are about 12,000 Jews, over whom, and all the rest ofour nation who dwell in the kingdom of Persia, Shallum isappointed to rule by the head of the captivity. Four days journeyfrom Ispahan is Siaphaz[14], the most ancient city of thiscountry, formerly Persidis, whence the whole province is named,in which there are almost 10,000 Jews. From Siaphaz you come, inseven days journey, to the city of Ginah, near the river Gozan,where there are about 8000 Jews, and to this place merchantsresort of all nations and languages. Five days journey from Ginahis the famous Samarcand, the farthest city of this kingdom, wherethere are 50,000 Israelites, many of whom are wise and rich men,and over whom Obedias is ruler. Four days journey from thence isthe city of Thibet[15], the capital of the province of that name,in the forests of which the animals are found that producemusk.

[14] Shiraz, about forty miles from which are theruins of Persepolis.--E.

[15] The distance here is extremely corrupt, andperhaps four months are meant.--E.

The mountains of Nisbor, which are situated near the riverGozan, are about twenty-eight days journey from Thibet; and someof the Jews in Persia affirm, that the four tribes of Israel,carried away in the first captivity by Salmanazar, still inhabitthe cities of Nisbor. Their country extends twenty days journeyin length, all full of mountains, and having the river Gozanrunning on one side, with many inhabited cities, towns, andcastles; and the inhabitants are entirely free, being governed byJoseph Amrael, a Levite, and among them are many disciples of thewise men. They sow and reap, and are at war with the children ofChus, who dwell in the deserts[16]. These Jews are in league withthe Copheral Turks, a people who dwell in the deserts, and eat nobread, neither do they drink any wine, but feed on the raw ordried flesh of beasts, clean or unclean, devouring them newlykilled, while yet trembling with the warm life-blood, anduncooked; yea, even feed on the limbs torn from beasts yet alive.This last people seem to want noses, having only as it were twoholes in their faces through which they breathe[17].

[16] The ridiculous impressing of ancient scripturalnames for the geographical features of the country, and thenations which inhabited it in his time, and his ramblingitinerary, by days journeys, without pointing out the precisedirection of the routs, render it next to impossible toinvestigate the real objects of his observations with any decentchance of success.--E.

[17] This description suits theCalmuks.--E.

These Copheral Turks invaded Persia about fifteen years ago,about 1145, with a great army, and destroyed the metropolitancity of Rei[18], and carried off vast spoil into the desert.Enraged at this insult, the king of Persia endeavoured to pursuethem with a powerful army, that he might extirpate thesedestroyers from the earth, and procured a guide who undertook toconduct him to their dwellings, and recommended to him to takebread and water for fifteen days along with the army, as it wouldoccupy that time to pass the deserts. After marching thesefifteen days, the army was without subsistence for man and beast,and no signs could be perceived of any habitation of mankind. Onbeing interrogated, the guide pretended to have lost his way, andwas put to death as a traitor. After marching for thirteen daysmore, in prodigious distress, during which they had to eat up allthe beasts that carried their baggage, they arrived at themountains of Nisbor, inhabited by the Jews, and incamped amonggardens and orchards, watered by canals drawn from the riverGozan; and being then the season of ripe fruits, they eat whatthey pleased, no one appearing to oppose them. At a distanceamong the mountains, they observed some hamlets and forts, andtwo scouts were sent to discover what manner of people inhabitedthe mountains. After proceeding a short way, they found a wellbuilt bridge, with a strong barrier, and a very large city at thefarther end of the bridge. They here learned, by an interpreter,that the city belonged to an independent nation of Jews, who hada prince of their own, and were in alliance with the CopheralTurks.

[18] Once a great city in the N.W. of Irac-agemi, notfar from Cashbin. See Chardin's Travels in Persia, to be foundafterwards in this collection.--E.

The scouts returned to the camp with this intelligence, andthe Jews, having collected their forces, offered battle on theday following to the Persians, The king declined this, declaringthat his only object was against the Copheral Turks, and that ifthe Jews attacked him he would revenge himself by putting alltheir brethren in Persia to the sword; but he demanded freepassage for his army, and to be supplied with provisions forready money. Out of regard for their brethren in Persia, the Jewsagreed to this proposal, and the Persian army remained fifteendays in the country of the Jews, where they were honourablyentertained. In the mean time the Jews sent intelligence of thesituation of the Persians to their confederates, and the Turks,gathering their forces, assailed the Persians at certain passesin the mountains, and gave them a terrible overthrow; so that theking escaped with great difficulty into Persia, with a smallremnant of his host. On this occasion, one of the Persianhorsem*n seduced a Jew, named Moses, to accompany him intoPersia, and then made him a slave. On a public exhibition ofarchery in the king's presence, this man appeared to be the mostexpert archer in all Persia, and being called before the king,declared how he had been trepanned and made a slave. The kingrestored him to liberty; clothed him in purple and silkengarments, and enriched him with liberal gifts; offering him greatriches, and the government of the royal household, if he wouldembrace the religion of the country; and when he courteouslydeclined this, he was placed by the king with Rabbi Shallum, theprince of the synagogue at Ispahan, whose daughter he afterwardsmarried; and this Moses related to me the whole story I have hererelated.

Departing from these countries, I returned to Khosistan,through which the Tigris runs into Hodu, the Indian sea,or Persian Gulf, and in its passage encompasses the island ofNekrokis[19] near its mouth, which is six days journey in extent.There is only one canal of fresh water in this island, and theyhave no other water to drink but what is gathered during rain,and preserved, in cisterns, for which reason the land is notcultivated. Yet it is famous for commerce with India, and theislands of the Indian sea; and merchants from Sennar, Arabia, andPersia, bring thither all sorts of silk and purple manufactures,hemp, cotton, flax, and Indian cloth, with plenty of wheat,barley, millet, and rice. The Indian merchants bring also greatquantities of spices, and the natives act as factors andinterpreters, by which they make great gains; but in that placethere are not above 500 Jews. Sailing thence with a favourablewind, I arrived, in ten days, at Kathipha[20], where are 5000Jews. In these places pearls are found, made by a wonderfulartifice of nature; for on the 24th of the month Nisan[21] acertain dew falls into the waters, which, being sucked in by theoysters, they sink immediately to the bottom of the sea, andafterwards, about the middle of the month Tisri, men dive to thebottom, and bring up great quantities of the oysters by means ofcords, from which they take out the pearls.

[19] This island has much puzzled commentators, someof whom have wandered to Ormus in quest of its situation. It isprobably the flat country of Assyria, between the Tigris andEuphrates, below Bagdat, which he may have mistaken for anisland; or it may refer to the Delta of the Tigris and Ahwas. Theextent mentioned in the text does not say whether it is to beunderstood as the length or circumference of theisland.--E.

[20] This must be at or near Bahrein, in the PersianGulf, famous for its pearl-fishery.--E.

[21] Nisan, the first month of the Jewish year,contains the latter half of our March and former half of April;Tisri is equivalent to half of September and half ofOctober.--E.

In seven days journey from thence I came to Oulam[22], whichis the entrance of the kingdom of these people, who worship thesun, and are prone to astrology, being of the children of Chus.They are men of a dark complexion, sincere and faithful in alltheir dealings. When any strangers arrive in their haven, theirnames are all set down by three secretaries, who carry theirlists to the king; afterwards they introduce the merchants tohim, and he receives all their goods under his protection,causing them to be landed at a place where they may remain insafety, even without a watch. There is a particular magistrate towhom all things that happen to be lost, or casually removed, arebrought, and who returns them to the owners, on giving the marksor description of their property; and this strict fidelity andhonest dealing is universal over all this kingdom. In thiscountry, from the passover to the beginning of the succeedingyear, the sun shines with such insufferable heat, that the peopleremain shut up in their houses from the third hour of the dayuntil evening; and then lamps are lighted up in all the streetsand markets, and the people labour at their respective callingsall night. In this country pepper grows on trees, planted in thefields belonging to every city, all the inhabitants having theirproper gardens particularly assigned and known. The shrub issmall, and produces a white seed or berry, which, after beinggathered, is first steeped in hot water, and then dried in thesun, when it becomes black. Cinnamon and ginger are likewisefound here, and many other kinds of spices.

[22] From the circ*mstance of pepper being plenty inthis place it is probable that some part of Malabar is meant,where he may have found a colony of Parsees. Astronomy is oftencalled astrology by old writers.--E.

In this country the bodies of the dead are embalmed withdivers drugs and spices, and set up in niches in regular order,covered over with nets; they there dry up completely withoutcorruption, and every one knows his ancestors for manygenerations back. They worship the sun, said have many largealtars erected along the coast, about half a mile without thecity, to pay their devotions. On these altars there areconsecrated spheres, made by magic art, resembling the circle ofthe sun; and when the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed,and whirl round with a great noise[23]. In their orisons, everyperson carries a censer, in which he burns incense in honour ofthe sun. But among these people there are about a thousandfamilies of Jews, as black as the rest of the natives, yet goodhonest men, and strict observers of the law of Moses, and notentirely ignorant of the doctrines of the Talmud.

[23] This must have been some secret mechanicalcontrivance, all wonders unknown to the ignorant being attributedby them to magic art.--E.

From this country I sailed, in twenty-two days, to the islandsof Cinrog, the inhabitants of which are called Dogbiim, and areworshippers of fire, among whom 23,000 Jews are settled. TheDogbiim have many priests to officiate in their temples, who arethe most skilful sorcerers and enchanters in the world. Beforeevery temple there is a large pit, in which a great fire iskindled every day, called Alhuta, through which their childrenare made to pass as a purification; into it likewise they castthe bodies of their dead, and even some of their noblesoccasionally are so superstitious as to devote themselves to beconsumed alive in honour of the deity, in which they areencouraged by their relations, as ensuring their eternal welfare.On the day appointed for the performance of this vow, the devotedperson first gives an entertainment, and is then carried to theappointed spot; if rich, on horseback, but on foot if poor,accompanied by a multitude of his friends and others, andimmediately leaps into the midst of the burning pit, all hisfriends and kindred celebrating the festival with music anddancing, until he is entirely consumed. Three days afterwards twoof the priests go to the house of the devoted person, and commandhis family to prepare for a visit from the deceased on the sameday. The priests then take certain persons along with them, aswitness of the transaction, and carry with them, to the house, afigure resembling the deceased, which they affirm to be himself.The widow and children, as instructed by the priests, then demandhow it fares with him in the other world: to which he answers, "Icame to my companions, who will not receive me until I havedischarged my duty to my friends and kindred." He then makes adistribution of his effects among his children, orders all hisdebts to be paid, and whatever is owing to him to be demanded.The witnesses set down all this in writing, and then he vanishes.By these arts of juggling and collusion, the priests govern everything as they please.

In the space of forty days, one may travel to the frontiers ofTzin, which is the very extremity of the east. Some hold thatthis country is washed by the Nikpha, or coagulated sea, which isliable to prodigious storms; by which, when mariners aresurprised, they are reduced to such extremity, that, not beingable to get out, they are miserably starved to death, afterexpending all their provisions[24].

[24] Tzin is obviously China. By the Nikpha, orcoagulated sea, the sea of Tartar may be intended; concerningwhich, some ill-told stories may have reached Benjamin, ofmariners having been frozen up. The situation of Cinrog it isimpossible to ascertain; but it must have been some part ofIndia, where voluntarily burning alive is still practised, butonly by the widows of the higher casts.--E.

From Cinrog, it is three days journey to Gingala, where thereare above a thousand Jews. From thence, in seven days, one maysail to Coulan, where there are none of our nation. It is twelvedays journey to Zabid, where there are some Jews; and in eightdays more, you get to the opposite coast, where there are veryhigh mountains, inhabited by multitudes of Israelites, who arenot under the yoke of the Gentiles, but have great cities andstrong fortresses of their own.

They descend from thence in parties into the flat countries ofAbyssinia, whence they return with their plunder into themountains, where they are secure against pursuit. Many of theseJews travel for the purposes of trade into Persia andEgypt[25].

[25] Benjamin here obviously speaks of the Jews inthe mountains of Abyssinia, still known there under the name ofFalassa. It would appear, that the previously indicated coursesled across the peninsula of Arabia and the Red Sea; but his namesof places are unintelligible.--E.

From thence, it is twenty days journey to Asvan[26], throughthe deserts of Saba, on the Phison, which river comes from thecountry of Chus, in the dominions of Shah-Abasch, or the king ofAbyssinia. Part of the inhabitants of this country live likebeasts, going entirely naked, and feeding only on the grass andherbs that grow by the river side, and propagate with theirsisters and nearest relations, without shame or scruple. When thepeople of Asvan make expeditions into these parts for the sake ofplunder, they constantly take with them bread, rice, raisins, andfigs, which they throw among the half-famished negroes, and whilethey scramble for the provisions, like a parcel of dogs, theAsvanians seize them, and carry them as prisoners into Egypt,where they are sold as slaves. It is twelve days journey fromAsvan to Chelvan, in which there are about three hundred Jews.From Chelvan they go, in fifty days journey, through the desertAl Tsachra, or Zara, to Zuila or Havilah, in the land ofGana[27]. In these deserts, there are vast mountains of sand,which, being sometimes carried by the force of violent winds,overwhelm whole caravans. The merchants who escape this perilousjourney, bring with them from that country, iron, copper, salt,and all sorts of fruits and pulse, and likewise gold and preciousstones. This country is part of the land of Chus, and is to thewest of Abyssinia.

[26] Perhaps Asowan in upper Egypt, which is renderedprobable by the journey through the desert.--E.

[27] Harris considered Gana to mean Guinea; but it isprobably Nigritia, or the inland country of Africa, on the Nigeror Joliba.--E.

It is thirteen days journey from Chelvan to the city of Kous,which is the first in the land of Egypt, and where 30,000 Jewsare settled. At the distance of five days journey is Phium,anciently Pithom, in the neighbourhood of which city the ruins ofthe structures built by our ancestors, during their captivity inEgypt, are still to be seen[28].

[28] Perhaps Memphis, as he evidently alludes to thepyramids.--E.

Four days journey from thence is the great city ofMisraim[29], on the banks of the Nile, in which above 2000 Jewsare settled. These have two fair synagogues, one of which belongsto the Jews of Palestine and Syria, and the other to those ofBabylon; the only difference between which sects is in the way ofdividing the law into portions. The Babylonians, every week, readone Parascha, after the manner usual in Spain, so as to gothrough the whole law once in every year; but the others divideeach parascha into three sedarim, or smaller sections, sothat they read over the whole law only once in three years. Yetboth of these join in their solemn prayers twice every year. Overthe whole Nathaniel presides, being head of the Sanhedrim, andruler of all the synagogues in Egypt, to which he appointsmasters and elders. He is likewise minister of the great king,who resides in the palace of Zoan, a city in Egypt, where Ali,the son of Abitaleb, was once commander of the faithful, andwhose subjects are considered as rebels by the other Arabs,because they refuse obedience to the Abassidian khaliff ofBagdat.

[29] Kahira, or Cairo, called alsoMessir.--E.

The royal city is surrounded with walls, but Misraim isentirely open, having the river Nile on one side. This is a verylarge city, having many large markets and public buildings, andcontains many rich Jews. The country is never troubled with rain,ice, or snow, but is often afflicted with insufferable heat. Itis watered by the Nile, which begins to swell every year in themonth Elul, and continues swelling during that month andTisri[30], making the earth fruitful. The old Egyptians erected afine marble pillar of excellent workmanship in an island at thisplace, rising twelve cubits above the ordinary surface of theriver; and when the water overflows that column, the inhabitantsare satisfied that their whole country is overspread for fifteendays journey. If the water rise only half the height of thepillar, they then conclude that only half the country isoverflowed. A person is stationed by the pillar, who proclaimsthe height of the water every day at noon. When the water risesto a sufficient height, it indicates a year of fertility andplenty in Egypt; but when it does not overflow, nothing is sown,and sterility and famine are the consequences. The people of thecountry have trenches dug in their grounds, in which greatnumbers of fish are caught when the river recedes, which theyeither use in their families, or salt them for sale. These fishare very fat, and supply oil for lamps. It is an old question, onwhich there is great diversity of opinion, as to the cause of theoverflow of the Nile; but the Egyptians suppose, that it proceedsfrom the falling of heavy rains in the land of Habash, which wecall Havilah or Abyssinia. The fields are usually sowed in themonth of September, as the Nile has then retired into itschannel. Barley is reaped in February, and wheat in March; and inthat month, grapes, cherries, and almonds are ripe; andencumbers, gourds, pease, beans, and lentils; and variouspot-herbs, as purslain, asparagus, lettuce, corianders, succory,coleworts, &c. The gardens and orchards are watered by meansof trenches filled from the Nile.

[30] Elul contains from the middle of August to themiddle of September and Tisri from that to the middle of October.But the Nile begins to rise in the middle of June, and returns toits usual level in October.--E.

After passing Cairo, this great river divides into fourbranches, one of which runs by Damietta, sometimes calledCaphtor. The second runs near the city of Rosir or Rosetta, notfar from Alexandria. The third passes by Asmon, a very large cityon the eastern borders of Egypt. Near these great branches, thereare many cities, castles, and towns, to which people travelpartly by land, and partly by water. No country in the world canbe compared to this for the multitude of inhabitants; and thewhole land is plain, fruitful, and stored with good things. OldMisraim is two league distant from New Misraim, or Cairo; but theold city is now desolate, having many ruins of walls and houses,and not a few remains of the granaries and storehouses, built byJoseph, are still to be seen. In the same place, there is anartificial pillar, built by art of magic, the like of which isnot in all the land. On the outside of the city, there are theremains of an ancient synagogue, which bears the name of ourteacher Moses, and to preserve its ruins, an old minister of thedisciples of the wise men [31], is maintained at this place, whois styled Schech Albounetzar, or father of the watch. The ruinsof Old Misraim extend about four miles.

[31] Of the Rabbinists orTalmudists.--E.

The land of Goshen is eight leagues from Old Misraim, and init is Bolsir- salbis, a great city, in which there are 3000 Jews.From hence you travel, in half a day's journey, toIskaal-Lein-Al-sames, anciently called Rameses, now in ruins;where are to be seen many works of our fathers, and among thesecertain huge edifices like towers, bulk of bricks. From thence,in one day's journey, you come to Al-Bugg, where are 200 Jews;and in another half days journey, to Manziptha, where there are200 Jews; Ramira is four leagues distant, having 700 Jews; andthence, in five days journey, you come to Lamkhala, where thereare 500 Jews. In two days journey more, you arrive at Alexandria,which was sumptuously built, and strongly fortified, at thecommand of Alexander the Macedonian. On the outside of the city,there is still to be seen a great and beautiful edifice, which issaid to have been the college of Aristotle, the tutor ofAlexander, wherein were twenty schools, frequented in formertimes by the learned men of the whole world, who assembled tolearn the philosophy of Aristotle, and this academy was adornedwith stately marble porticos. The city itself is excellentlybuilt, and well paved, having many vaults and arches underneath,some of which are a whole mile in length, leading from the gateof Rosetta to the gate leading to the sea. The haven extends awhole mile in length, and at this place, a very high tower wasbuilt, called Hemegarah by the inhabitants, and Magar-Iscander bythe Arabs, which signifies the Pharos of Alexander. It isreported that Alexander fixed a curious mirror on the top of thistower, by means of which, all warlike ships sailing from Greece,or out of the west into Egypt, might be seen at the distance offive hundred leagues. But a Greek captain, who had greatknowledge of the sciences, came thither with his ship, andingratiated himself in the favour of the king, by presents ofgold and silver and rich silks. He likewise took great pains toacquire the friendship of the officer who had charge of themirror and watch-tower, by frequently entertaining him in hisship, and at length was permitted to go into, and stay in thetower, as often, and as long as he pleased. One day, he gave amagnificent entertainment to the keeper of the tower and his men,and dosed them so plentifully with wine, that they all fell fastasleep; on which he broke the mirror to pieces, and then sailedaway in the night. Since then, the Christians have infested thecoasts of Egypt with their ships of war, and have taken the twolarge islands of Crete and Cyprus, which remain at this day underthe power of the Greeks. The Pharos is still used as a beacon forthe service of ships bound to Alexandria, and can be discerned byday or night, from the distance of an hundred miles, as a vastfire is kept burning there all night for the purpose.

Egypt enjoys a large share of trade, and is frequented byalmost all nations; and the port of Alexandria swarms withvessels from every part of Christendom, as from Valencia,Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Malfi, and Sicily. Others come fromthe most northern parts of Europe, and even from inland places;as from Cracow, Cordova, Spain, Russia, Germany, Sweden, Denmark,England, Flanders, Artois, Normandy, France, Poitou, Angiers,Gascony, Arragon, and Navarre. There come many also from thewestern empire of the Ishmaelites or Arabs, as from Andalusia,Algarve, Africa, and even Arabia, besides what come by the Indianocean from Havilah or Abyssinia, and the rest of Ethiopia, notomitting the Greeks and Turks. To this, country likewise arebrought the richest merchandizes of the Indies, and all sorts ofperfumes and spices, which are bought by the Christian merchants.The city is extremely populous, on account of its extensivecommerce; and for the greater conveniency in the carrying on oftheir dealings, every nation has its separate factory. There is,near the sea side, a marble tomb, on which are engraven thefigures of all sorts of birds and beasts, with an inscription insuch old characters, that no one can now read them; whence it isbelieved that it had belonged to some king who governed thatcountry before the deluge. The length of this sepulchre isfifteen spans, and it is six spans broad[32]. To conclude, thereare about 3000 Jews in Alexandria.

[32] This may possibly have been the Sarcophagusbrought lately from Alexandria, and deposited in the Britishmuseum, under the strange idea of having been the tomb ofAlexander. Benjamin seems to have known nothing about thehieroglyphics, with which his tomb was obviouslycovered.--E.

Leaving Egypt, Benjamin made an expedition from Damietta toMount Sinai, and returned to Damietta, whence he sailed toMessina in Sicily, and travelled to Palermo. Crossing into Italy,he went by land to Rome and Lucca. He afterwards crossed theAlps, and passed through a great part of Germany, mentioning, inhis remarks, the great multitudes of Jews who were settled in thenumerous cities of that extensive empire, insisting at large ontheir wealth, and generosity, and hospitality to their distressedbrethren, and gives a particular detail of the manner in whichthey were received. He informs us, that at the entertainments ofthe Jews they encourage each other to persist in hoping for thecoming of their Messiah, when the tribes of Israel shall begathered under his command, and conducted back into their owncountry. Until this long expected event shall arrive, they holdit their duty to persevere in their obedience to the law ofMoses, to lament with tears the destruction of Jerusalem andZion, and to beseech the Almighty to pity them in theiraffliction, and restore them at his appointed time. He assertsthat his countrymen are not only settled in all the provinces andcities of the German empire, but through all the countries of thenorth, to the very extremities of Russia; and describes thatcountry as so cold in winter that the inhabitants could not stirout of doors. He tells us that France, which the Rabbins callTzorphat, is full of the disciples of the wise men, who study thelaw day and night, and are extremely charitable to theirdistressed brethren; and concludes with an earnest prayer to God,to remember his promise to the children of Israel, to return untothem, and to reassemble them from among all the nations, throughwhich, in his wrath, he has dispersed them.

Towards the end of his travels[33], Benjamin mentions thatPrague in Bohemia is the beginning of Sclavonia. In speaking ofthe Russian empire, he says it extends from the gates of Pragueto the gates of [Hebrew] Phin, a large town at thebeginning of the kingdom. In that country the animals called[Hebrew] Wairegres, and [Hebrew] Neblinatz arefound. Interpreters disagree about the meaning of these words.But it clearly appears that Phin is no other thanKiow, then the capital of the Russian empire; and weshould therefore read [Hebrew:] Chiw: and indeed theinterpreters might easily have supposed that the word was wrongwritten, from its wanting the final nun. Russia has alwaysbeen famous for its gray foxes or gray squirrels, which, in theRussian language, are called [Hebrew] in the Hebrew text,therefore, of Benjamin, we should read [Hebrew] Waiwerges,which as nearly resembles the Russian word, as a Spanish Jewcould possibly write it. The name of the other animal should bewritten [Hebrew] Zeblinatz, by which are meant Sables.Jordanis had before this called these skins Sapphiliniaspelles.--Forst.

[33] This short commentary upon three words in thatpart of the travels of Benjamin, which has been omitted inHarris, is extracted from Forster, Hist of Voy. and Disc. in theNorth, p. 92, and shews the extreme difficulty of any attempt togive an accurate edition of the whole work, if that should bethought of, as it would require critical skill not only inHebrew, but in the languages of the different countries to whichthe travels refer.--E.

CHAPTER VI.

Travels of an Englishman into Tartary,and thence into Poland, Hungary, and Germany, in1243.[1]

[1] Hakluyt, I, 22.

This earliest remaining direct account of the Tartars, orMongols receiving that name, which is extremely short andinconclusive, is recorded by Matthew Paris, in a letter from Yvode Narbonne to the archbishop of Bourdeaux, and is here given asa literary curiosity.

Provoked by the sins of the Christians, the Lord hath becomeas it were a destroying enemy, and a dreadful avenger; havingsent among us a prodigiously numerous, most barbarous, andinhuman people, whose law is lawless, and whose wrath is furious,even as the rod of God's anger, overrunning and utterly ruininginfinite countries, and cruelly destroying every thing where theycome with fire and sword. This present summer, that nation whichis called Tartars, leaving Hungary, which they had surprised bytreason, laid siege, with many thousand soldiers, to the town ofNewstadt, in which I then dwelt, in which there were not abovefifty men at arms, and twenty cross-bow-men, left in garrison.All these observing from certain high places the vast army of theenemy, and abhorring the beastly cruelty of the accomplices ofAntichrist, signified to the governor the hideous lamentations ofhis Christian subjects, who, in all the adjoining provinces, weresurprised and cruelly destroyed, without any respect of rank,fortune, age, or sex. The Tartarian chieftains, and theirbrutishly savage followers, glutted themselves with the carcassesof the inhabitants, leaving nothing for the vultures but the barebones; and strange to tell, the greedy and ravenous vulturesdisclaimed to prey on the remains left by the Tartars. Old anddeformed women they gave for daily sustenance to their cannibals:The young and beautiful they devoured hot, but smothered themshrieking and lamenting under their forced and unnaturalravishments; and cutting off the breasts of tender virgins topresent as dainties to their leaders, they fed themselves upontheir bodies.

Their spies having descried from the top of a high mountainthe Duke of Austria, the King of Bohemia, the Patriarch ofAquileia, the Duke of Carindiia, and as some say, the Earl ofBaden, approaching with a mighty power towards them, the accursedcrew immediately retired into the distressed and vanquished landof Hungary, departing as suddenly as they had invaded, andastonishing all men by the celerity of their motions. The princeof Dalmatia took eight of the fugitives, one of whom wasrecognized, by the Duke of Austria as an Englishman, who had beenperpetually banished from England for certain crimes. This manhad been sent twice as a messenger and interpreter from the mosttyrannical king of the Tartars to the king of Hungary, menacingand fortelling those mischiefs which afterwards happened, unlesshe would submit himself and his kingdom to the yoke of theTartars. Being urged by our princes to confess, the truth, thisman made such oaths and protestations, as I think might haveserved to make even the devil be trusted.

He reported of himself, that presently after his banishment,being then about thirty years of age, and having lost all hepossessed at dice in the city of Acon[2] he set off from thence,in the middle of winter, wearing nothing but a shirt of sacking,a pair of shoes, and a hairy cap; and, being shaven like a fool,he uttered an uncouth noise, as if he had been dumb, and wanderedabout through many countries in search of food. At length,through fatigue, and change of air and diet, he fell grievouslysick in Chaldea, insomuch that he was weary of his life. Beingcompelled to remain there a long time to recover his strength,and having some learning, he began to write down the words heheard spoken, and in a short time made himself so much master ofthe language, as to be reputed a native; and in this manner heattained expertness in many languages. The Tartars got notice ofthis man by means of their spies, and drew him by force amongthem; and, having been admonished by an oracle or vision toextend their dominion over the whole earth, they allured him bymany offers of reward, to serve them as an interpreter. He gavethe following account of the manners and superstitions of theTartars, of the disposition and stature of their bodies, and oftheir country and manner of fighting.

[2] Acre, in Palestine--E.

The Tartars are covetous, irascible, deceitful, and merciless,beyond all men; yet, through the rigour of discipline which isexercised by their superiors, they are restrained from brawls andmutual strife. They esteem the ancient founders and fathers oftheir tribes as Gods, in whose honour they celebrate solemnfeasts at certain fixed times; and these deities are verynumerous, though only four are considered as general gods of thenation. They consider all things as created for their sole use,and do not therefore think themselves cruel or unjust in wastingand destroying the surrounding nations, whom they esteem rebelsagainst their legitimate authority. Their bodies, though lean,are hardy and strong, with broad chests, and square highshoulders, strong, well knit joints and firm sinews, thick andlarge thighs, with short legs, so that, being equal to us instature, what they want in their legs is supplied in the upperpart of their bodies. Their faces are pale, with short flatnoses, their eyes black and inconstant, having large eyebrows,extending down to the nose; long sharp chins, their upper jawslow and declining, their teeth long and thin, their countenancesdistorted, fierce and terrible.

In ancient times their country, which is situated far beyondChaldea, was utterly waste and barren, from whence they haveexpelled the lions, bears, and other wild beasts. Of the tannedhides of beasts they make for themselves light but impenetrablearmour, and their backs are only slightly armed, that they maynot flee in battle. They use small but strong horses, which aremaintained with little provender. In fight they use javelins,maces, battle-axes, and swords, but are particularly expert inthe use of bows and arrows. When engaged in battle they neverretire till they see the chief standard of their general giveback. When vanquished they ask no quarter, and in victory theyshew no compassion; and though many millions in number, they allpersist as one man, in resolving to subdue the whole world undertheir dominion. They have 60,000 couriers who are sent beforeupon light horses to prepare a place for the army to encamp, andthese will gallop in one night as far as our troops can march inthree days. When they invade a country, they suddenly diffusethemselves over the whole land, surprising the people unarmed,unprovided, and dispersed, and make such horrible slaughter anddevastation, that the king or prince of the invaded land cannotcollect a sufficient force to give them battle.

Sometimes they say, they intend to go to Cologne to bring homethe three wise kings into their own country; sometimes theypropose to punish the avarice and pride of the Romans, whoformerly oppressed them; sometimes to conquer the barbarousnations of the north; sometimes to moderate the fury of theGermans with their own mildness; sometimes in derision they saythat they intend going in pilgrimage to the shrine of St James inGalicia. By means of these pretences, some indiscreet governorsof provinces have entered into league with them, and have,granted them free passage through their territories; but whichleagues they have ever violated, to the certain ruin anddestruction of these princes and their unhappy countries.

CHAPTER VII.

Sketch of the Revolutions inTartary.

Our limits do not admit of any detailed account of the historyof those numerous and warlike pastoral nations, which in all ageshave occupied the vast bounds of that region, which has beenusually denominated Scythia by the ancients, and Tartary by themoderns: yet it seems necessary to give in this place, acomprehensive sketch of the revolutions which have so strikinglycharacterized that storehouse of devastating conquerors, toelucidate the various travels into Tartary which are contained inthis first book of our work; and in this division of our plan, wehave been chiefly guided by the masterly delineations on the samesubject, of the eloquent historian of the Decline and Fall of theRoman Empire[1].

[1] Gibbon, Dec. and Fall, IV. 355.

In their navigation of the Euxine, and by planting colonies onits coasts, the Greeks became acquainted with Western Scythia,extending from the Danube, along the northern frontiers ofThrace, to mount Caucasus. The great extent of the ancientPersian Empire, which reached at one period from the Danube tothe Indus, exposed its whole northern frontier to the Scythiannations, as far to the east as the mountains of Imaus or Caf, nowcalled the Belur-tag. The still more eastern parts of Scythia orTartary were known of old to the Chinese, and stretch to theutmost north-eastern bounds of Asia. Thus from the Danube andCarpathian mountains, in long. 26°. E, to the promontory ofTschuts-koi-nos, or the East Cape of Asia, in long. 190°. E.this vast region extends in length 160 degrees of longitude, ornot less than 8000 miles. Its southern boundaries are moredifficultly ascertainable: but, except where they are pressednorthwards by the anciently civilized empire of China, these maybe assumed at a medium on the thirty-fifth degree of northlatitude; from, whence Scythia or Tartary extends in breadth tothe extremity of the frozen north.

Next to the nomadic nations of Western Scythia, whoencountered and baffled the arms of Darius, King of Persia, underthe general name of Scythians, who were perhaps congeneric, orthe same with those afterwards known by the name of Goths, thedreaded name of the Huns became known to the declining RomanEmpire. But our object does not require us to attempt to tracethe history of these nations, under their various appellations ofHuns, Topa, Geougen, Turks, Chozars, and others, till theestablishment of the vast empire of Zingis connected the historyand devastating conquests of the Tartars with the affairs ofmodern Europe[2].

[2] Decl. and Fall, XI. 402.

In the beginning of the thirteenth century, Temugin, the sonof a Mogul chief, laid the foundations of a vast empire in thenorth east of Tartary or Mongolia. His father had reigned overthirteen hordes or tribes of the Moguls, Moals, or Monguls: andas it was not customary for these warlike tribes to submit to beruled over by a boy, Temugen, who at the death of his father wasonly thirteen years of age, had to contend with his revolted,subjects, and had to obey a conqueror of his own nation. In a newattempt to recover the command over the subjects of his, father,he was more successful: and under the new appellation ofZingis, which signifies most great, he became theconqueror of an empire of prodigious extent. In person, or bymeans of his lieutenants, he successfully reduced the nations,tribes, or hordes of Tartary or Scythia, from China to the Volga,and established his undisputed authority over the whole pastoralworld. He afterwards subjugated the five northern provinces ofChina, which were long imperfectly known under the name ofKathay; and successively reduced Carisme or Transoxiana, nowgreat Bucharia, Chorassan, and Persia: and he died in 1227, afterhaving exhorted and instructed his sons to persevere in thecareer of conquest, and more particularly to complete theconquest of China.

The vast empire established by Zingis, was apportioned amonghis four principal sons, Toushi, Zagatai, Octai, and Tuli, whohad been respectively his great huntsman, chief judge, primeminister, and grand general. Firmly united among themselves, andfaithful to their own and the public interest, three of thesebrothers, and their families and descendants, were satisfied withsubordinate command; and Octai, by general consent of the maols,or nobles, was proclaimed Khan, or emperor of the Mogulsand Tartars. Octai was succeeded by his son Gayuk; after whosedeath, the empire devolved successively on his cousins Mangou orMangu, and Cublai, the sons of Tuli, and the grandsons of Zingis.During the sixty-eight years of the reigns of these foursuccessors of Zingis, the Moguls subdued almost all Asia, and aconsiderable portion of Europe. The great Khan at firstestablished his royal court at Kara-kum in the desert, andfollowed the Tarter custom of moving about with the golden horde,attended by numerous flocks and herds, according to the changesof the season: but Mangu-Khan, and Cublai-Khan, established theirprincipal seat of empire in the new city of Pe-king, orKhan-balu, and perfected the conquest of China, reducing Corea,Tonkin, Cochin-china, Pegu, Bengal, and Thibet, to differentdegrees of subjection, or tribute, under the direct influence ofthe great Khan, and his peculiar lieutenants.

The conquest of Persia was completed by Holagu, the son ofTuli and grandson of Zingis, who of course was' brother to thetwo successive emperors, Mangu and Cublai. From Persia, theMoguls spread their ravages and conquests over Syria, Armenia,and Anatolia, or what is now called Turkey in Asia; but Arabiawas protected by its burning deserts, and Egypt was successfullydefended by the arms of the Mamalukes, who even repelled theMoguls from Syria.

Batu, another son of Tuli, conquered Turkestan and Kipzak[3],Astracan and Cazan, and reduced Georgia and Circassia todependence. Advancing from the Black Sea to Livonia on theBaltic, Moscow and Kiow were reduced to ashes, and Russiasubmitted to pay tribute. Their victorious arms penetrated intoPoland, in which they destroyed the cities of Lublin and Cracow;and they even defeated the confederate army of the dukes ofSilesia, the Polish palatines, and the great master of theTeutonic knights, at Lignitz, the, most western extremity oftheir destructive march. From Lignitz they turned aside intoHungary, and reduced the whole of that country to the north ofthe Danube. During the winter, they crossed the Danube on theice. Gran, the capital of Hungary, was taken by storm, and Bela,the unfortunate king of Hungary, had to take shelter in one ofthe islands at the head of the Adriatic. So terrible was thealarm in Europe, that the inhabitants of Sweden and the north ofGermany neglected, in 1238, to send their ships, as usual, to theherring-fishery on the coast of England; and, as observed byGibbon, it is whimsical enough to learn, that the price ofherrings in the English market was lowered in consequence of theorders of a barbarous Mogul khan, who resided on the borders ofChina[4]. The tide of ruin was stemmed at Newstadt in Austria, bythe bravery of fifty knights and twenty cross-bow-men; and theTartars, awed by the fame of the valour and arms of the Franks,or inhabitants of western Europe, raised the siege on theapproach of a German army, commanded by the emperor Frederic theSecond. After laying waste the kingdoms of Servia, Bosnia, andBulgaria, the adventurous Batu slowly retreated from the Danubeto the Volga, and established his seat of command in the city andpalace of Serai, both of which he had caused to be built upon theeastern arm of that noble river. Another of the sons of Tuli,Shaibani-khan, led a horde of 15,000 Tartar families into thewilds of Siberia; and his descendants reigned above threecenturies at Tobolsk, in that secluded region, and even reducedthe miserable Samoyedes in the neighbourhood of the polarcircle.

[3] Dashte Kipzak, or the plain of Kipzak, extendedon both sides of the Volga, towards the Jaik or Ural, and theBorysthenes or Dnieper, and is supposed to have given name to theCosacs.--Gibb.

[4] As reported by Gibbon, from Matthew Paris, p.396, forty or fifty herrings were sold for a shilling. This mustbe an error, perhaps for 40 or 50 thousand; as a shilling ofthese days was worth at least from fifteen to twenty modernshillings in effective value; and within memory herrings haveoften sold, in a very plentiful fishery, for a shilling thecart-load, when salt could not be had in sufficientquantity.--E.

Such was the establishment and extent of the first Tartar orMogul empire. The descendants of Cublai gave themselves up toluxury in the palace of Peking, amidst a mischievous crowd ofeunuchs, concubines, and astrologers, and their Mogul army,dissolved and dispersed in a vast and populous country, forgotthe discipline and bravery of their ancestors. The secondaryMogul sovereigns of the west, assumed entire independence; andthe great khan was satisfied with the empire of China and easternMongalia, In 1367, one hundred and forty years after the death ofZingis, roused to rebellion by a dreadful famine, in whichthirteen millions of the inhabitants of China perished, thenative Chinese expelled their degenerate Mogul oppressors, andthe great khan became a wanderer in the desert. The vast empireestablished by Zingis and his immediate successors was now brokendown into four vast fragments, each a powerful empire, Mongalia,Kipzak, Zagtai or Transoxiana, and Persia; and these four khansoften contended with each other. On their ruins in lesser Asia,arose the formidable, more permanent, and still subsisting empireof the Ottoman Turks, whose youthful energies threatened thesubversion of the last remains of the Greek empire, which they atlast effected, and might perhaps have conquered the whole ofWestern Europe, if their progress had not been arrested by thepower of a new Mogul dynasty.

In the distribution of the vast empire of Zingis, we havealready seen that Zagathai, one of his sons, received thesubordinate rule of Transoxiana, or the rich country on therivers Jihon or Amu, and the Sir or Sihon, the Oxus and Jaxartesof the ancients. This extensive and fertile country, now calledWestern Turkestan, Great Bucharia, Kharism, Chorassan, and Balk,with some other smaller territories, is bounded on the west bythe Caspian, on the east by the Belur-tag or Imaus, on the northby the deserts of western Tartary, and on the south by themountains of the Hindoo-koh, and the desert of Margiana. Thedescendants of Zagatai were long considered as the khans orsovereigns of this fair empire, which fell into civil war andanarchy, through the divisions and subdivisions of the hordes,the uncertain laws of succession, and the ambition of theministers of state, who reduced their degenerate masters to merestate puppets, and elevated or deposed successive khans at theirpleasure; and the divided and distracted country was subjected oroppressed by the invasions of the khans of Kashgar, who ruledover the Calmucks or Getes in eastern Turkestan, or littleBucharia, on the cast of Imaus or the Belur-tag.

In this state of misery and depression, a new hero arose, in1361, to vindicate and re-establish the fame and empire of theMoguls[5]. Timour, usually called Tamerlane, was the son of thehereditary chief of Cash, a small but fruitful territory aboutforty miles to the south of Samarcand. He was the fifth indescent from Carashar-Nevian, who had been vizir or primeminister to Zagathai, of which sovereign Timour was descended inthe female line. After various fortunes, he in 1370, renderedhimself absolute sovereign of Transoxiana, then called Zagatai,after its first Mogul ruler; but for some time, he affected togovern as prime minister, or general, to a nominal khan of thehouse of Zingis, who served as a private officer at the head ofhis family horde in the army of his servant. After establishinghis authority in Zagatai, and conquering Kharism, and Candahar,he turned his arms against Persia or Iran, which had fallen intodisorganization by the extinction of the descendants of the greatHolacou, and which country he reduced under subjection. Hesuccessively reduced Cashgar, or eastern Turkestan, and Kipzak orwestern Tartary, and invaded Syria and Anatolia. In thisinvasion, in 1402, was fought the great battle of Angora, inwhich Bajazet, the great sultan of the Turks, was defeated andtaken prisoner. By this great victory, the progress of theTurkish arms was checked for a time, and perhaps Europe was savedon that day from being subjected to the law of Mahomet. Yet thevast empire which Timour established, fell into fragments afterhis death, in 1405, and his descendants have sunk into oblivion;while the race of Othman and Bajazet still rule over a largeempire in Europe and Asia, nearly commensurate with the easternRoman empire, still called Rumi in the east.

[5] Decl. and Fall. XII. I.

Having thus traced an outline of the revolutions of empire inTartary, down to what may be considered as modern history, it isonly necessary farther to mention, that all eastern Tartary andMongalia is now subject to China, and Kipzac and all the northernto Russia. Hardly any part of it now remains independent, exceptZagatai; or Transoxiana, Kharism, Candabar, and the deserts ofWestern Tartary: the former of which is subject to the Usbeks,and the latter to the Kirguses.

CHAPTER VIII.

The Travels of John de Plano Carpini andother Friars, sent about the year 1246, as ambassadors from PopeInnocent IV, to the great Khan of the Moguls orTartars.[1]

[1] Hakluyt. I. 24. and 42. for the Latin of the tworelations; and p. 59. for the old English translation of thesecond.

INTRODUCTION.

In the collection of early Voyages, Travels, and Discoveries,by Hakluyt, published originally in 1599, and reprinted at Londonin 1809 with additions, there are two separate relations of thesetravels. The first, in p. 24, is the journal of John dePlano Carpini, an Italian minorite, who, accompanied by friarBenedict, a Polander, went in 1246 by the north of the Caspiansea, to the residence of Batu-khan, and thence to Kajuk- khan,whom he calls Cuyne, the chief or Emperor of all the Mongols. Thesecond in p. 42, is a relation taken from the SpeculumHistoriale of Vincentius Beluacensis, lib. xxxii. ch. 2. of themission of certain friars, predicants and minorites in the sameyear, 1246, to the same country; and in p. 59. of the samecollection, there is a translation by Hakluyt into antiquatedEnglish of this second account. From this second narrative itappears, that Vincentius had received an account of the journeyof the second mission from Simon de St Quintin, a minorite friarbelonging to the party; and that he had worked up along withthis, the whole of the narrative which had been separatelypublished by Carpini of his journey; which indeed forms by farthe larger and more interesting portion of the work published byVincentius. This latter edition, therefore has been considered assufficient for the present collection, because to have given bothwould have been an unnecessary repetition; and it is heretranslated from the Latin of Hakluyt, I. 42.

The object of this mission or embassy seems to have been asfollows: A prodigious alarm was excited in Europe, by thevictorious and destructive progress of the Mongals or Tartars;who, under the command of Tuschi-khan, and of Batu-khan, the sonof Tuschi, advancing through Kipzhak, Russia, Poland, andHungary, all of which they had most horribly ravaged and laidwaste, had penetrated even into Silesia; while by the easternside or the Caspian, penetrating through Transoxiana and Persia,under the command of Zagatai-khan, likewise a son of Zingus, andHolagu-khan, a nephew of Zagatai, they had made their appearanceon the banks of the Euphrates and Tigris. In this alarmingconjuncture, it was thought advisable by Pope Innocent IV. in aconvocation of the clergy at Lyons, in 1245, to send ambassadorsto these formidable conquerors, to endeavour to pacify them, andinduce them to turn the destructive tide of their conquests insome other direction, and perhaps partly in the hope ofendeavouring, if possible, to convert them to the Christianfaith, and inducing them to direct their arms against the Turksand Saracens, who oppressed the Holy Land. For this purpose, sixmonks were selected from the new and severe orders of predicantsand minorites. John de Plano Carpini and Benedict, travelledthrough Bohemia and Poland to Kiow in Russia, and thence by themouth of the Dnieper to the camp of Korrensa, or Corrensa, ageneral of the Mongals; whence, crossing the Don and Wolga orVolga, they came to the encampment of Bata-khan, called also Batyand Baatu, who sent them to Kajuk-khan, the emperor of theMongals, whom they call Cuyne. The other ambassadors wereAsceline, with Friars Alexander, Albert, and Simon de St Quintin:who went by the south of the Caspian, through Syria, Persia, andChorassan, to the court of Baiju-Nojan, or as they call himBajothnoy: but of the particulars of this journey very little hasbeen preserved by Vincentius, so that in fact, the travels herepublished belong almost exclusively to Carpini.

The full title given by Hakluyt to this relation is worthpreserving as a literary curiosity, and is as follows:

"The long and wonderful voyage of Friar John de Plano Carpini,sent ambassador, by Pope Innocent IV. A.D. 1246, to the great Canof Tartacia; wherein he passed through Bohemia, Polonia, Russia,and so to the city of Kiow upon Boristhenes, and from thence rodecontinually post for the space of sixe moneths through Comania,over the mighty and famous rivers, Tanais, Volga, and Jaie, andthrough the countries of the people called Kangittae, Bisermini,Karakitay, Naimani, and so to the native country of the Mongolsor Tartars, situate in the extreme north-eastern partes of allAsia; and thence back again the same Way to Russia, and Polonia,and so to Rome; spending in the whole voyage among the saydTartars, one whole year, and above four moneths: Taken out of the32 booke of Vincentius Beluacensis his Speculum Historiale."

SECTION I.

Introductory Epistle by John de Plano Carpini.

To all the faithful in Christ, to whom this writing may come,I friar John de Plano Carpini, of the order of minorites, legateand messenger from the Apostolic see to the Tartars and othernations of the east, wish the Grace of God in this life, andglory in the next, and perpetual triumph over all the enemies ofthe Lord. Having learnt the will of our lord the Pope, and thevenerable Cardinals, and received the commands of the holy see,that we should go to the Tartars and other nations of the east,we determined to go in the first place to the Tartars; because wedreaded that the most imminent and nearest danger to the Churchof God arose from them. And although we personally dreaded fromthese Tartars and other nations, that we might be skin or reducedto perpetual slavery, or should suffer hunger and thirst, theextremes of heat and cold, reproach, and excessive fatigue beyondour strength, all of which; except death and captivity, we haveendured, even beyond our first fears, yet did we not spareourselves, that we might obey the will of God, according to theorders of our lord the Pope, that we might be useful in any thingto the Christians, or at least, that the will and intention ofthese people might be assuredly known, and made manifest toChristendom, lest suddenly invading us, they might find usunprepared, and might make incredible slaughter of the Christianpeople. Hence, what we now write is for your advantage, that youmay be on your guard, and more secure; being what we saw with ourown eyes, while we sojourned with and among these people, duringmore than a year and four months, or which we have learnt fromChristian captives residing among them, and whom we believe to,be worthy of credit. We were likewise enjoined by the supremepontiff, that we should examine and inquire into every thing verydiligently; all of which, both myself and friar Benedict of thesame order, my companion in affliction and interpreter, havecarefully performed.

SECTION II.

Of the first Mission of Friars Predicants and Minorites tothe Tartars.

At the same period, Pope Innocent IV. sent Friar Asceline ofthe order of friars predicants, with three other friars fromdifferent convents, with apostolical letters to the army of theTartars, exhorting them to desist from slaughtering mankind, andto adopt the true Christian faith; and from one of these latelyreturned, Friar Simon de St Quintin, of the minorite order, Ihave received the relations concerning the transactions of theTartars, which are here set down. At the same period, Friar, Johnde Plano Carpini of the order of minorites, with some others, wassent to the Tartars, and remained travelling among them forsixteen months. This Friar John hath written a little history,which is come to our hands, of what he saw among the Tartars, orlearnt from divers persons living in captivity. From which I haveinserted such things, in the following relation, as were wantingin the accounts given me by Friar Simon.

SECTION III.

Of the Situation and Quality of the Land of the Tartars,from Carpini.

The land of Mongolia or Tartary is in the east part of theworld, where the east and north are believed to unite[1]; hayingthe country of Kathay, and the people called Solangi on the east;on the south the country of the Saracens; the land of the Huinion the south-east; on the west the province of Naimani, and theocean on the north. In some parts it is full of mountains, inother parts quite plain; but everywhere interspersed with sandybarrens, not an hundredth part of the whole being fertile, as itcannot be cultivated except where it is watered with rivers,which are very rare. Hence there are no towns or cities, exceptone named Cracurim[2], which is said to be tolerably good. We didnot see that place, although within half a day's journey, when wewere at the horde of Syra, the court of their great emperor.Although otherwise infertile, this land is well adapted for thepasture of cattle. In some places there are woods of smallextent, but the land is mostly destitute of trees; insomuch, thateven the emperor and princes, and all others, warm themselves andcook their victuals with fires of horse and cow dung. The climateis very intemperate, as in the middle of summer there areterrible storms of thunder and lightning, by which many peopleare killed, and even then there are great falls of snow, andthere blow such tempests of cold winds, that sometimes people canhardly sit on horseback. In one of these, when near the SyraHorde, by which name they signify the station of the emperor, orof any of their princes, we had to throw ourselves prostrate onthe ground, and could not see by reason of the prodigious dust.It never rains in winter, but frequently in summer, yet so gentlyas scarcely to lay the dust, or to moisten the roots of thegrass. But there are often prodigious showers of hail; insomuch,that by the sudden melting of one of these, at the time when theemperor elect was about to be placed on his throne, at which timewe were at the imperial court, above an hundred and sixty personswere drowned, and many habitations and much valuable things wereswept away. In summer there are often sudden and intolerableheats, quickly followed by extreme cold.

[1] This strange personification of the East andNorth, as if they were stationary geographical terms, not merely,relative, only means that Mongalia lay in the most north-easterlypart of the then known world. --E.

[2] Called likewise Karakum, or Caracorum, and saidto signify the Black Sand.--E.

SECTION IV.

Of the Appearance, Dress, and Manner of Living of theTartars.

The appearance of the Mongols or Tartars is quite differentfrom all other nations, being much wider between the eyes andcheeks, and their cheeks are very prominent, with small flatnoses, and small eyes, having the upper lids opened up to theeyebrows, and their crowns are shaven like priests on each side,leaving some long hair in the middle, the remainder being allowedto grow long like women, which they twist into two tails orlocks, and bind behind their ears. The garments of the men andwomen are alike, using neither cloaks, hats, nor caps, but theywear strange tunics made of bucram, purple, or baldequin. Theirgowns are made of skins, dressed in the hair, and open behind.They never wash their clothes, neither do they allow others towash, especially in time of thunder, till that be over. Theirhouses are round, and artificially made like tents, of rods andtwigs interwoven, having a round hole in the middle of the rooffor the admission of light and the passage of smoke, the wholebeing covered with felt, of which likewise the doors are made.Some of these are easily taken to pieces or put together, and arecarried on sumpter-cattle; while others are not capable of beingtaken to pieces, and are carried on carts. Wherever they go,whether to war, or only travelling to fresh pastures, these arecarried with them. They have vast numbers of camels, oxen, sheep,and goats, and such prodigious multitudes of horses and mares, asare not to be found in all the rest of the world; but they haveno swine. Their emperor, dukes, and other nobles, are extremelyrich in gold and silver, silks, and gems. They eat of every thingthat is eatable, and we have even seen them eat vermin. Theydrink milk in great quantity, and particularly prefer that ofmares. But as in winter, none but the rich can have mares milk,they make a drink of millet boiled in water; every one drinkingone or two cups in the morning, and sometimes having no otherfood all day; but in the evening, every one has a small quantityof flesh, and they drink the broth in which it was boiled. Insummer, when they have abundance of mares milk, they eat littleflesh, unless it is given them, or when they catch venison orbirds.

SECTION V.

Of their Good and Bad Customs.

(Illustration: Map of the Western part of Tartary &Adjacent Countries)

Some of their customs are commendable, and others execrable.They are more obedient to their lords than any other people,giving them vast reverence, and never deceiving them in word oraction. They seldom quarrel; and brawls, wounds, or manslaughterhardly ever occur. Thieves and robbers are nowhere found, so thattheir houses and carts, in which all their treasure is kept, arenever locked or barred. If any animal go astray, the findereither leaves it, or drives it to those who are appointed to seekfor strays, and the owner gets it back without difficulty. Theyare very courteous, and though victuals are scarce among them,they communicate freely to each other. They are very patientunder privations, and though they may have fasted for a day ortwo, will sing and make merry as if they were well satisfied. Injourneying, they bear cold, or heat with great fortitude. Theynever fall out, and though often drunk, never quarrel in theircups. No one despises another, but every one assists hisneighbour to the utmost. Their women are chaste, yet theirconversation is frequently immodest. Towards other people theyare exceedingly proud and overbearing, looking upon all other menwith contempt, however noble. For we saw, in the emperor's court,the great duke of Russia, the son of the king of Georgia, andmany sultans and other great men, who received no honour orrespect; so that even the Tartars appointed to attend them,however low their condition, always went before them, and tookthe upper places, and even often obliged them to sit behind theirbacks. They are irritable and disdainful to other men, and beyondbelief deceitful; speaking always fair at first, but afterwardsstinging like scorpions. They are crafty and fraudulent, andcheat all men if they can. Whatever mischief they intend theycarefully conceal, that no one may provide or find a remedy fortheir wickedness. They are filthy in their meat and drink, and inall their actions. Drunkenness is honourable among them; so that,when one has drank to excess and throws up, he begins again todrink. They are most importunate beggars, and covetouspossessors, and most nigg*rdly givers; and they consider theslaughter of other people as nothing.

SECTION VI.

Of the Laws and Customs of the Tartars.

Men and women guilty of adultery, or even of fornication, arepunished with death. Those detected in robbery or theft arelikewise slain. If any one divulges their councils, especiallywith regard to an intended war, he receives an hundred blows onhis buttocks with a great cudgel, as hard as a strong man can layon. When any of the meaner sort commit offences, they areseverely punished by their superiors. In marriage, they pay noattention to nearness of kindred, except their mothers,daughters, or sisters by the same mother; for they will evenmarry their sisters from other mothers, and their fathers wivesafter his death. The younger brother also, or some other of thekindred, is bound to marry the wives of a deceased brother.

While I remained in the country, a Russian duke, namedAndrew[1], being accused before duke Baatu, of conveying Tartarhorses out of the country and selling them to other nations, wasput to death, although the fact was not proved against him. Afterthis, the widow and younger brother of Andrew came to Baatu,supplicating that they might not be deprived of the dukedom, uponwhich Baatu commanded them to be married according to the Tartarcustom; and though both refused, as contrary to the religion andlaws of Russia, they were compelled to this incestuous union.After the death of their husbands, the Tartar widows seldommarry, unless when a man chooses to wed his brother's wife or hisstepmother. They make no difference between the son of a wife orof a concubine, of which the following is a memorable example.The late king of Georgia left two sons, Melich and David, of whomthe former was lawful, and the other born in adultery; but heleft part of his dominions to his bastard. Melich appealed to theTartar emperor for justice, and David went likewise to the court,carrying large gifts; and the emperor confirmed the will of theirfather, even appointing David to have the superior authority,because eldest born. When a Tartar has more than one wife, eachhas her own house and establishment, and the husband eats,drinks, and sleeps, sometimes with one and sometimes withanother. One is considered as principal wife, and with her heresides oftener than with the others; and though they aresometimes numerous, they very seldom quarrel amongthemselves.

[1] In the previous account of the travels ofCarpini, Hakl. I. 27. this Andrew is said to have been duke ofSarvogle, or Seirvogle, perhaps meaningYeroslave.--E.

SECTION VII.

Of their Superstitious Traditions.

In consequence of certain traditions, they consider manyindifferent actions as criminal. One is, to thrust a knife intothe fire, or any way to touch a fire with a knife, to take meatfrom the pot with a knife, or even to hew any thing with an axenear a fire; as they consider all these things as taking away theforce of the fire. Another is, to lean upon a whip, for they useno spurs, or to touch arrows with their whip, to strike theirhorse with their bridle, to take or kill young birds, or to breakone bone upon another. Likewise, to spill milk, or any drink, orfood, on the ground, or to make water in a house; for the lastoffence, if intentional, a man is slain, or he must pay a heavyfine to the soothsayers to be purified; in which case, the house,and all that it contains, has to pass between two fires, beforewhich ceremony no person must enter the house, nor must any thingbe removed from it. If any one takes a bit of meat that he cannotswallow and spits it out, a hole is made in the floor of thehouse, through which he is dragged and put to death. If any onetreads on the threshold of a house belonging to one of theirdukes, he is put to death. Many such things they account highoffences.

But to slay men, to invade the territories of others, to takeaway the goods of other people, and to act contrary to thecommands of God, is no crime among them; and they know nothing ofthe life to come, or of eternal damnation. But they believe in afuture life, in which they shall tend flocks, eat and drink, anddo those very things which they do in this life. At new moon, orwhen the moon is full, they begin any new enterprise; they callthe moon the great emperor, and they worship that luminary ontheir knees. All who dwell in their houses must undergopurification by fire, which is performed in this manner. Havingkindled two fires at a convenient distance, they fix two spearsin the earth, one near each fire, stretching a cord between thetops of these spears, and about the cord they hang some rags ofbuckram, under which cord, and between, which fires, all the men,and beasts, and houses must pass; and all the while, a womanstands on each side, sprinkling water on the passengers, andreciting certain verses. If any one is killed by lightning, allthat dwell in the same house with the dead person must be thuspurified; otherwise, the house, beds, carts, felts, garments, andevery thing else would be abandoned as unclean. When anymessengers, princes, or other persons arrive, they and theirgifts must pass between two fires for purification, lest theyshould bring witchcraft, poison, or any other mischief.

SECTION VIII.

Of the Beginning of their Empire.

The land of Mongolia was formerly divided among four differenttribes or nations. One of these was the Yeka-Mongal, or the greatMongols. The second Su-Mongal, or the Water Mongols, who calledthemselves Tartars, from a river of that name in theirterritories. The third was named Merkat, and the fourth Metrit.All these tribes resembled each other in form, and complexion,and spoke the same language, though they were divided intodistinct provinces, under separate princes. In the land of theYeka-Mongal, lived one named Zingis, a great hunter, who used torob and take much prey, going into the neighbouring districts,where he seized all that came in his way, and associated manyunder his command, till at length the people of his nationattached themselves to him, and followed him as their leader todo evil. After some time, Zingis went to war with the Su-Mongalor Tartars, slew their duke, and subjugated the nation; and hesuccessively reduced the Merkats and Metrites to his growingdominion. The Naymani, to whom all the surrounding tribes thenpaid tribute, were much indignant at the elevation of Zingis; buttheir great emperor had lately died, leaving the authoritydivided among his sons, who were young and foolish, and knew nothow to rule the people; yet they invaded the territories of theMongals, slaying the inhabitants and carrying off much prey. Onthis Zingis collected the whole strength of his subjects, and theNaymani, united with the Cara-Cathayans, gathered a mighty armyin a certain narrow valley to oppose him, in which a great battlewas fought, and the Mongals obtained the victory, theconfederates being mostly slain, and those who escaped werereduced to subjection. Zingis established his son Occoday, Ugdai, or Octai-Khan, in the land of the Kara-Kitayans, where hebuilt a town called Omyl or Chamyl[1]; near which, and to thesouth, there is a vast desert, in which there are said to becertain wild men, who do not speak, and have no joints in theirlegs, yet have sufficient art to make felt of camels wool forgarments, to protect them from the weather.

[1] Called Chamil or Hami in the maps, in lat.43° N. and long. 92° E It stands in a province of thesame name, on the north side of the great desert of Cobi, and tothe N.E. of the land of the Kalmuks, or littleBucharia.--E.

SECTION IX.

Of the Mutual Victories of the Mongals andCathayans.

After their return from conquering the Naymani andCara-Cathayans, the Mongals prepared to go to war with theKythaos, or Cathayans[1]; but the Mongals were defeated in agreat battle, and all their nobles were slain except seven.Zingis and the rest who had escaped from this defeat, soonafterwards attacked and conquered the people called Huyri[2], whowere Nestorian Christians, from whom they learned the art ofwriting. After this they conquered the land of Sarugur, and thecountry of the Karanites, and the land of Hudirat, and returninginto their own country, took a short respite from war. Againassembling a great army, they invaded Cathay, and after a longstruggle, they conquered the greater part of that country, andbesieged the emperor in his greatest city. The siege lasted solong, that the army of the Mongals came to be in want ofprovisions, and Zingis is said to have commanded that every tenthman of his own army should be slain as food for the rest. Atlength, by great exertions, the Mongals dug a mine underneath thewalls of the city, through which a party entered and opened thegates for the rest of the army, so that the city was carried, andthe emperor and many of the citizens put to the sword. Havingappointed deputies to rule over his conquests, Zingis returnedinto Mongalia with immense quantities of gold and silver andother precious spoil. But the southern parts of this empire, asit lies within the sea, has not been conquered by the Mongals tothis day[3].

[1] The inhabitants of Northern China, then aseparate kingdom from Mangi, or Southern China.--E.

[2] The Huirs or Uigurs.--E.

[3] This probably alludes to the difficultyexperienced by the Mongals in forcing a passage across the greatrivers Hoang-ho and Kian-ku--E.

The people of Cathay are Pagans, having a peculiar kind ofwriting of their own, in which they are reported to possess thescriptures of the Old and New Testament. They have also lives ofthe fathers, and houses in which they pray at stated times, builtlike churches; they are even said to have saints, to worship oneGod, to venerate the Lord Jesus Christ, and to believe eternallife; but they are not baptised[4]. They have no beards, and theypartly resemble the Mongals in their features. Their country isexceeding fruitful in corn, and abounds in gold and silver, wineand silk, and all manner of rich commodities, and the whole worldhas not more expert artificers in all kinds of works andmanufactures.

[4] These absurd notions must have been picked up bythe credulous papal messengers, from ignorant or designingNestorians in Mongolia.--E.

SECTION X.

Of the Wars of the Mongals against the Greater and LesserIndia.

When Zingis and his people had rested some time after theirconquest of Cathay, he divided his army, and sent one of hissons, named Thosut- khan[1], against the Comaniam, whom hevanquished in many battles, and then returned into his owncountry. Another of his sons was sent with an army against theIndians, who subdued the lesser India. These Indians are theBlack Saracens, who are also named Ethiopians. From thence theMongal army marched to fight against the Christians dwelling inthe greater India, and the king of that country, known by thename of Prester John, came forth with his army against them. Thisprince caused a number of hollow copper figures to be made,resembling men, which were stuffed with combustibles, and setupon horses, each having a man behind on the horse, with a pairof bellows to stir up the fire. When approaching to give battle,these mounted images were first sent forwards against the enemy,and the men who rode behind set fire by some means to thecombustibles, and blew strongly with their bellows; and theMongal men and horses were burnt with wildfire, and the air wasdarkened with smoke. Then the Indians charged the Mongals, manyof whom were wounded and slain, and they were expelled from thecountry in great confusion, and we have not heard that they everventured to return[2].

[1] Probably Tuschi-Khan.--E.

[2] It is needless to remark upon the confused andignorant geography, and the idle tale of a Christian empire inIndia in this section. The strangely ill-told story of the copperimages, by which the Mongals were scorched with wild-fire, mayrefer to the actual employment either of cannon or rocketsagainst the Mongals in this invasion.--E.

SECTION XI.

Of Monstrous Men like Dogs, and of the Conquest ofBurithabeth.

In returning through the desert, we were told by some Russianpriests at the emperor's court, that the Mongals found certainwomen, who, being asked where their men were, said that all thewomen of that country had human shapes, but that the males hadthe shape of great dogs. After some time, they met the dogs onthe other side of a river. It being in winter, the dogs plungedinto the water, and then rolled themselves in the dust on theland, till the dust and water was frozen on their backs; andhaving done this repeatedly till the ice was thick and strong,they attacked the Mongals with great fury; but when the Mongalsthrew their darts, or shot their arrows at them, they reboundedas if they had fallen on stones, neither could their weapons inany way hurt them. But the dogs killed some of the Tartars, andwounded many with their teeth, and finally drove them out of thecountry[1].

[1] It is surely unnecessary to remark on thisridiculous story of the canine men, which no commentary couldreduce to sense.--E.

On their return home, the Mongals came into the country ofBurithabeth, of which the inhabitants are pagans, and conqueredthe people in battle. These people have a strange custom ofeating their kindred when they die. They have no beard, for wesaw some of them going about with certain iron instruments intheir hands, with which they pluck out any hairs they find ontheir faces[2].

[2] These people may possibly have been the Burats.The same practice of eradicating the beard is still followed bythe native tribes of America.--E.

SECTION XII.

How the Mongals were repulsed at the Caspian Mountains, byMen dwelling in Caves.

When Zingis sent the before-mentioned armies into the east, hemarched personally into the land of the Kergis[1], which,however, he did not now conquer. In this expedition the Mongalsare said to have penetrated to the Caspian mountains, which beingof adamant, attracted their arrows and other weapons ofiron[2].

[1] The Kirguses, inhabiting Western Turkestan,between Lake Balkash and the Caspian.--E.

[2] The remainder of this short section is soridiculously fabulous as not to merit translation, and istherefore omitted.--E.

SECTION XIII.

Of the death of Zingis, and concerning his Sons, and theTartar Dukes or Princes.

Zingis is said to have been killed by lightning. He had foursons, the first was called Occoday, or Oktai, the second Thosut,Tuzi, or Tuschi, the third Thiaday, or Zagathai, and the name ofthe fourth I could not learn. From these four all the dukes ofthe Mongals are descended[1]. Cuyne, or Kajuk, the eldest son ofOccoday, or Oktai, is now emperor; and he has two brothersCocten, and Chyrinen. Bathy, or Baatu, Ordu, Siba, and Boru arethe sons of Thosut-khan. Baatu is richer and mightier than allthe rest, being next in power to the emperor; but Ordu is thesuperior of all the dukes. The sons of Thiaday are Hurin andCadan. The sons of the son of Zingis whose name I could notlearn, are Mengu, Bithat, and several others. The mother of Menguwas Seroctan, the greatest lady among the Tartars, and the mosthonoured except the emperor's mother, and more powerful than anysubject except Bathy. The following is a list of their dukes:Ordu, Bathy, Huryn, Cadan, Syban, and Ouygat, who were all inHungary; Cyrpodan, who remains beyond the sea[2], making waragainst certain soldans of the Saracens, and other transmarinenations. Mengu, Chyrinen, Hubilai, Sinocur, Cara, Gay, Sybedey,Bora, Berca, and Corensa, all remain in Tartary. But there aremany other dukes whose names I could not learn.

[1] Other authors give a different account of thefamily of Zingis. According to Harris, I. 556, Zuzi, or Tuschi,was his eldest son, who died six months before his father, andhis son Baatu got a great part of Tartary for his share.Zagathai, a son of Zingis, got Transoxiana, or the country of theKirguses. Tuli, another son, had Chorassan, Persia, and westernIndia. Octai had Mongalia and Cathay, or Northern China. Carpini,or rather Vincentius, has sadly confounded all authentic history,by his rambling colloquial collections from ignorant relators,and has miserably corrupted the orthography of names of nations,places, and persons.--E.

[2] Probably meaning in Persia, beyond the CaspianSea.--E

SECTION XIV.

Of the Power of the Emperors, and of his Dukes..

The Tartar emperor enjoys incontrollable power over all hissubjects, insomuch, that no man dare abide in any other placethan he has assigned; and he even appoints the residences of allthe dukes. The dukes appoint the residence of the millenaries, orcommanders of a thousand men; the millenaries do the same withthe centurions, or captains of hundreds; and the centurionsdirect in what place the decurions or commanders of tens are todwell. Whatsoever order any of these officers receive from theirimmediate superiors must be instantly and implicitly obeyed. Ifthe emperor demands the virgin daughter or sister of any one, sheis instantly delivered up; nay, he often collects the virginsfrom all the Tartar dominions, and retains such as he pleases forhimself, giving away others among his followers. All hismessengers must be everywhere provided with horses andnecessaries without delay: and all messengers coming to him withtribute or otherwise, must be provided on their way with horses,carriages, and all necessaries; yet messengers from strangecountries, suffer great distresses and much want of provisionsand clothing, especially when sent to any of the princes, andwhen they have to make any stay; as they often allot for ten men,what would hardly suffice for two, and if they suffer any injuryit is even dangerous to complain. Many gifts are demanded ofthem, both by the princes and others, and if these are refusedthey are contemned. Owing to this, we were constrained to expendin presents, a large portion of what had been bestowed upon us bywell disposed persons to defray our expences. In fine, everything whatever belongs to the emperor, so that no one dare to saythat any thing is his own; and the dukes and princes exercise anequally incontrollable dominion upon all below them.

SECTION XV.

Of the Election of the Emperor Occoday, and of theExpedition of Duke Bathy.

On the death of Zingis-chan, the dukes assembled and electedhis son Occoday, Ugadai, or Oktai-khan, emperor in his place; whoimmediately, in a council of the nobles, divided the army, andsent Bathy, or Baatu-khan, who was next in authority, against theland of Altissodan and the country of the Bissermini[1], who wereSaracens, though they spoke the language of the Comanians. Bathydefeated these people in battle; but the city of Barchin, whichwas surrounded with strong walls, resisted for a long while,until the Tartars filled up the ditches and won the place, whichthey destroyed. Sargat surrendered without resistance, for whichthe city was not destroyed, but many of the citizens were slainand made captives, and much spoil was taken, and the city wasfilled with new inhabitants. The Tartars marched next against therich and populous city of Orna, in which were many ChristianGassarians, Russians, and Alanians, and many Saracens, the lordof the city being of that nation. This town stands on a largeriver, and is a kind of port, exercising great trade. Beingunable to reduce this place by force, the Tartars dammed up theriver, and drowned the whole city, with the inhabitants and theirgoods. Hence they invaded Russia, and besieged Kiow a long while,which they at length took, and massacred the inhabitants. Thiswas a large and populous city, but is now reduced to nothing, andscarcely has two hundred houses: and when we passed throughRussia, we found immense numbers of human skulls and bonesscattered about. From Russia and Comania they proceeded againstthe Hungarians and Polonians, where many of them were slain: andhad the Hungarians withstood them manfully, the Tartars had beenutterly defeated. In their return from thence, they invaded anddefeated the pagan Morduans: whence they marched against theByleri of greater Bulgaria, which they almost entirely destroyed.Thence they proceeded to the north against the Bastarci ofgreater Hungary, whom they conquered; and going farther north,they came to the Parossitae, and thence to the Samogetae,reaching even to the ocean; and from thence returned intoComania.

[1] The Busurmen, Musurmen, or Mahometan inhabitantsof Turkestan.--E.

SECTION XVI.

Of the Expedition of Duke Cyrpodan.

At the same time Occoday-khan sent duke Cyrpodan with an armyto the south, against the pagan Kergis, who have no beards, whomhe subdued. After which he marched against the Armenians, whom heconquered, and likewise subdued a part of Georgia. The other partof that country is likewise under subjection, and pays an yearlytribute of 20,000 yperperas. He thence marched into the dominionsof the great and powerful soldan of the Deuri, whom he defeated;and proceeded to the country of the soldan of Aleppo, which hesubdued; and afterwards reduced the caliph of Baldach or Bagdatto subjection, who is forced to pay a daily tribute of 400byzants, besides baldekins[1] and other gifts. Every year theTartar emperor sends messengers to require the presence of thecaliph; who sends back great gifts besides the regular tribute,to prevail on the emperor to excuse his absence.

[1] This is probably a manufacture of Bagdat orBaldach, from whence its name; and may have been flowered silk orcloth of gold.--E.

Duke Cyrpodan and his army still propose to invade moredistant countries, and have not yet returned into Tartary.

SECTION XVII.

Of the Military conduct of the Tartars.

Zingis-khan divided the Tartars into companies or divisions often, of, an hundred, and of a thousand each, every one of whichhad its appropriate officer. Over every ten millenaries he placedone general; and over an army of several bodies of ten thousandmen, two or three dukes, one of whom had the superior command.When they join battle against their enemies, unless the wholearmy retreat by common consent, all who fly are put to death. Ifone, two, or more of a decury proceed bravely to battle, and therest do not follow, the cowards are slain. If one, two, or moreof the decury are made prisoners and the rest do not rescue them,they are put to death. Every man must have two bows, or at leastone good bow, three quivers full of arrows, an axe, and certainropes to draw the military machines. The rich or officers havesharp-pointed swords, somewhat curved and sharp on one edge. Theywear helmets, coats of mail, and cuisses, and their horses evenare armed. Some have their own armour and that of their horsesmade of leather, ingeniously doubled and even tripled. The upperparts of their helmets are of iron or steel, but the hood whichprotects their neck and throat is of leather. Some have all theirdefensive armour composed of many small plates of iron, ahand-breadth long and an inch broad, perforated with eight smallholes, by which they are tied with small leather thongs to strongthongs of leather underneath, so that the plates overlap eachother in regular series, and are firmly knit together. The armourboth of men and horses is often made in this fashion, and is keptfinely burnished. Some carry lances having hooks, to pull theirenemies from horseback. Their arrow-heads are exceedingly sharpon both edges, and every man carries a file to sharpen them.Their targets are made of wicker, but they are hardly evercarried, except by the night guards, especially those inattendance upon the emperor and the princes.

The Tartars are exceedingly crafty in war, in which they havebeen continually engaged for the last forty-two years against allthe surrounding nations. When they have to pass rivers, theprincipal people secure their garments in bags of thin leather,drawn together like purses, and closely tied. They fix these totheir saddles, along with their other baggage, and tie the wholeto their horse's tail, sitting upon the whole bundle as a kind ofboat or float; and the man who guides the horse is made to swimin a similar manner, sometimes having two oars to assist inrowing, as it were, across the river. The horse is then forcedinto the river, and all the other horses follow, and in thismanner they pass across deep and rapid rivers[1]. The poorerpeople have each a purse or bag of leather well sewed, into whichthey pack up all their things, well tied up at the mouth, whichthey hang to the tails of their horses, and thus swim across.

[1] This mode of passing over rivers, thoughcarefully translated, is by no means obviously described. I amapt to suppose that the leathern bags, besides holding theapparel and other valuables, were large enough to be blown upwith air so as to serve as floats, like those used by the ancientMacedonians; a practice which they may have learnt from theScythians. The Latin of Vincentius Beluacensis appears to havebeen translated from the French original of Carpini, from thefollowing circ*mstance: What is here translated their otherbaggage is, in the Latin, alias res duriores; almostwith certainty mistakenly rendered from the French leursautres hardes.--E.

SECTION XVIII.

How the Tartars ought to be resisted.

No single kingdom or province can resist the Tartars, as theygather men for war from every land that is subjected to theirdominion; and if any neighbouring province refuses to join them,they invade and lay it waste, slaughtering the inhabitants orcarrying them into captivity, and then proceed against anothernation. They place their captives in the front of battle, and ifthey do not fight courageously they are put to the sword.Wherefore, if the princes and rulers of Christendom mean toresist their progress, it is requisite that they should makecommon cause, and oppose them with united councils. They oughtlikewise to have many soldiers armed with strong bows and plentyof cross-bows[1], of which the Tartars are much afraid. Besidesthese, there ought to be men armed with good iron maces, or withaxes having long handles. The steel arrow-heads should betempered in the Tartar manner, by being plunged, while hot, intowater mixed with salt, that they may the better be able topenetrate the armour of the Tartars. Our men ought likewise tohave good swords, and lances with hooks to drag them from theirsaddles, which is an easy matter; and ought to have good helmetsand armour of proof for themselves and horses: And those who arenot so armed ought to keep in the rear of those who are, todischarge their arrows and quarrels over the heads of theircompanions.

[1] The word here used in the Latin,balistais, is probably corrupted in transcription forbalistariis; and may either mean cross-bow-men, or men forworking balistae, the ancient artillery, if the expression beallowable. Arcubalistarii is the appropriate middle age Latin formen armed with cross-bows.--E.

Our armies ought to be marshalled after the order of theTartars, already described, and under the same rigorous laws ofwar. Whoever betakes himself to plunder before victory isperfectly ascertained, should suffer death. The field of battleought to be chosen, if possible, in a plain, where every thingmay be seen around. The army should by no means be drawn up inone body, but in many divisions, not too distant. One band oughtto be dispatched against those who first advance, while anotherremains prepared to assist in time of need. Scouts ought to besent out on every side, to give notice of the approach of theenemy; that band may always be sent to meet band as they come on,as the Tartars are always anxious to surround their enemies. Eachband ought however to be cautious not to pursue too far whentheir enemies fly, lest they fall into a snare or ambush, as theTartars fight more by stratagem than by main force; and this therather, that our people may not fatigue their horses, in which wedo not abound, while the Tartars always have such numbers thatthey seldom remount one horse, till after three or four daysrest. Should even the Tartars retire towards their own country,our army ought by no means to retreat or separate; as they oftenpractise this stratagem to delude their enemies and induce themto divide, and then return suddenly to destroy the country attheir pleasure. Our generals ought to keep their troops day andnight on the alert, and always armed, ready for battle; as theTartars are always vigilant like the devils, and are everdevising how to commit mischief. Finally, when a Tartar fallsfrom his horse in battle, he ought immediately to be taken orslain; as when on foot even they are excellent archers, anddestructive to men and horses[2].

[2] Our good minorite seems in this chapter to havestudied the old proverb, fas est ab hoste doceri; butexcept in the leading political advice of the section, he mighthave been better employed in following the adage of ne sutorultra crepidam.--E.

SECTION XIX.

Of the Journey of Friar John de Plano Carpini, to the FirstGuard of the Tartars[1].

[1] The journal of Carpini begins here, that ofAsceline never appears.--E.

Setting out, by command from the apostolic See, upon ourjourney to the Tartars, lest there might arise danger from theirproximity to the church of God, we came first to the king ofBohemia, with whom we were acquainted, and who advised us totravel through Poland and Russia, because he had kinsmen inPoland, through whose assistance we might be enabled to travel inRussia; and he supplied us with recommendatory letters andpassports, giving us free passage as his charges through hisdominions, whence we proceeded to the court of Boleslaus, duke ofSilesia, his nephew, who was likewise known and friendly to us.He treated us in the same hospitable manner, and transmitted usfree of expense to Conrad, duke of Lautiscia, or Masovia, where,by God's grace, Wasilico[2], duke of Russia, then was, from whomwe fully learned the arts of the Tartars, as he had sentmessengers to them who were already returned. Learning that itwas necessary for us to make presents, we caused some skins ofbeavers and other animals to be purchased with part of the moneywhich had been given us in charity to defray our expences; and wereceived more of the same skins from duke Conrad, fromGrimislava, duch*ess of Cracow, from the bishop, and from certainnobles of that place. And at the request of the duke, bishop, andnobles of Cracow, Wasilico conducted us into his country, andentertained us there for some days at his expense. Likewise heconvened his bishops at our request, to whom we read the Pope'sletters, admonishing them to return into the unity of the church,adding our own exhortation to the same purpose. But because dukeDaniel, the brother of Wasilico was absent at the court of Baatu,they could not then give a satisfactory answer.

[2] At this period Jeroslaw, or Jeroslaus, was grandduke of Wolodimir or Wladimire, then considered as the sovereignsof Russia, who was succeeded by Alexander.--Playf. Syst. ofChronol. Wasilico, therefore, or Wasile, must have been asubordinate duke, or a junior member of the reigningfamily.--E.

After this Wasilico sent us forward to Kiow, the chief city ofRussia, under the conduct of one of his servants; in whichjourney we were in great danger of our lives from theLithuanians, who often invaded the borders of Russia in the veryplaces through which we had to pass; but by means of this servantwe were secured against any injury from the Russians, of whomindeed the greater part had been slain, or carried into captivityby the Tartars. In this journey we had almost perished of cold atDanilou[3], through the prodigious depth of the snow, although wetravelled in a wagon. On our arrival at Kiow, and consulting withthe millenary[4], and other nobles, respecting our fartherjourney, we were advised not to carry the horses we then had intoTartary, as they would all certainly die by the way, as they werenot used to dig under the snow in search of grass like the Tartarhorses, and no food could be procured for them, as the Tartarsmake no provision of hay or straw, or any other provender,against winter. We determined therefore to leave them behind,under the care of two servants, till our return, and by means ofpresents, we prevailed on the millenary to allow us post-horsesand a guide. We began our journey on the second day after thePurification[5], and arrived at Canow, which was under theimmediate dominion of the Tartars. The governor allowed ushorses, and a guide to another town, of which one Micheas, a mostmalicious person, was governor; who, gained by our presents,conducted us to the first station of the Tartars.

[3] There is a town named Danilovska, near the S. E.frontiers of European Russia.--E.

[4] From this circ*mstance, it may be presumed thatKiow was then occupied by a guard of Tartars, under a commanderof a thousand men.--E.

[5] This was the 4th February, probably of1247.--E.

SECTION XX.

Of his first Reception by the Tartars.

On the first Saturday after Ash-Wednesday, while we weretaking up our quarters for the night, near sunset, a number ofarmed Tartars came suddenly upon us, in a threatening manner,demanding who we were. Having told them that we were messengersfrom the Pope, and giving them some victuals, they immediatelywent away. When we proceeded on our journey next morning, thechiefs of this guard met us, and demanded to know the purpose ofour journey. We answered "That we were messengers from our Lordthe Pope, the father and lord of the Christians, going to theiremperor and princes, and the whole Tartar nation, to desire peaceand friendship between the Tartars and the Christians: And as thePope wished the Tartars to become great, and to acquire thefavour of God, he admonished them by us, and by his letters, toembrace the faith of Christ, without which they could not besaved: That the Pope was astonished to hear of their monstrousslaughter of mankind, more especially of the Hungarians,Mountaineers, and Polanders, who were his subjects, and who hadneither injured, or attempted to injure the Tartars; and as Godis sore offended by such proceedings, the Pope admonished them torefrain in future, and to repent of what they had done, andrequested an answer as to their future intentions." On which theypromised us horses and a guide to Corrensa, but for which favourthey demanded presents. Some of them rode swiftly on before, toinform Corrensa of our message, and we followed. This Corrensa isgeneral or duke of all the Tartars who are placed as a guardagainst the people of the West, lest some enemy might suddenlyinvade them; and is said to have 60,000 men under hiscommand.

SECTION XXI.

His Reception at the Court of Corrensa.

On our arrival at the residence of Corrensa, our tent wasordered to be pitched at a considerable distance, and his agentscame to demand what gifts we would offer in paying our obeisanceto him. We answered that our lord the Pope had sent no gifts, ashe was uncertain if we should ever arrive at their country,considering the dangerous places we had to pass through; but thatwe should honour him with part of those things which had beengiven us to defray the charges of our journey. Having receivedour gifts, we were conducted to the orda or tent of the dukeCorrensa, and instructed to bow our left knee thrice before hisdoor, taking great care not to set our feet on the threshold; andwhen entered, we were to repeat on our knees the words which wehad said before. This done, we presented the letters of the Pope;but the interpreter whom we had hired at Kiow, was not able toexplain them sufficiently, nor could any one be found equal tothe task.

From this place post-horses were appointed to conduct us withall speed to duke Baatu, under the guidance of three Tartars.This Baatu is the most powerful prince among them, next to theiremperor. We began our journey to his court on the first Tuesdayin Lent, and riding as fast as we could trot, though we changedour horses twice or thrice every day, and often travelled in thenight, it was Maunday Thursday before we accomplished ourjourney. The whole of this journey was through the land ofComania, which is all an uniform plain, watered by four largerivers. The first of these is the Dnieper or Boristhenes; on theRussian side of which the dukes Corrensa and Montij march up anddown, the latter, who marches on the other side of the plains,being the more powerful of the two[1]. The second river is theDon, or Tanais of the ancients, on the banks of which a certainprince, named Tirbon, sojourns, who is married to the daughter ofBaatu. The third and largest is the Volga or Rha, on which Baaturesides. The fourth is the Jaik or Rhymnus, on each bank of whicha millenary commands. All these descend southwards in winter tothe sea, and travel in summer up these rivers, towards thenorthern mountains. All these rivers, especially the Volga,abound in fish, and run into the great sea, from which the arm ofSt George extends past Constantinople[2]. While on the Dnieper,we travelled many days upon the ice; and on the shore of the seawe found the ice three leagues broad. Before our arrival at theresidence of Baatu, two of our Tartars rode on before, to givehim an account of what we had said to Corrensa.

[1] It is difficult to understand the ambiguity hereused, unless we suppose that the station of Montij was on theright bank of the Dnieper; while certainly that of Corrensa wason the left or north-east bank.--E.

[2] The Euxine and Caspian are here confounded as onesea. It is scarcely necessary to observe, that the Dnieper andDon run into the Euxine, while the Volga and Jaik, or Ural, aredischarged into the Caspian. --E.

SECTION XXII

The Reception of Carpini at the Court of Baatu.

When we arrived at the residence of Baatu, in the land ofComania, we were ordered to pitch our tent a full league from hisstation, and when we were to be introduced at his court, we wereinformed that it was previously necessary for us to pass betweentwo fires. We refused this at first, but were told there was nodanger, and that it was only precautionary, in case we intendedany mischief to their lord, or should have brought poison alongwith us, as the fire would remove all evil. On which we complied,that we might remove all suspicion of any such sinisterintentions. After this, when we came to the orda, we werequestioned by Eldegay, the agent of the prince, respecting thegifts we meant to offer; and making the same reply we had givenat the court of Corrensa, our gifts were offered and accepted;and having declared the object of our journey, we were introducedinto the presence, making our obeisances, and were admonishedrespecting the threshold, as formerly mentioned. We thenrehearsed our former oration on our knees, and produced ourletters, and requested the aid of interpreters to translate them.These were sent us on Good Friday, and, with their assistance,our letters were carefully translated into the Russian,Tartarian, and Saracen languages, and presented to Baatu, whor*ad them with attention. We were then conducted back to ourlodging, but no food was given us, except a little millet in adish, on the first evening of our arrival.

Baatu carries himself with great magnificence, having porters,and all other officers, after the manner of the emperor, and sitsin an elevated place, like a throne, along with one of his wives.Some of his brothers, and sons, and nobles, sit below him, onbenches, and all others on the ground, behind the rest, the menbeing on his right, and the women on his left. He uses somebeautiful and large linen tents, which formerly belonged to theking of Hungary; and no person, however great, presumes to enterhis tent without leave, except his own family. At this interviewwe were seated on his left hand, but on our return from theemperor, we were placed on the right. A table stands near thedoor of the tent or house, on which there is abundance of drink,in golden and silver vessels. Neither Baatu, nor any of theTartar princes, drink in public, without having singers andharpers playing before them. When he rides, there is a smalltent, canopy, or umbrella, carried over his head, on the point ofa spear; and the same is done to all the Tartar princes and theirwives. Baatu is extremely courteous to his people, yet is held ingreat awe; he is exceedingly sagacious, crafty in war, andinexorably cruel in battle, and has been long experienced in theconduct of warlike enterprises.

SECTION XXIII.

The Journey through the Land of Comania, and of theKangittae.

On Easter eve we were again called to the court, and Eldegay,whom we have mentioned before as the agent of Baatu, came out tous from the tent, saying that we must go forwards to the court oftheir emperor: but they detained a part of our company, underpretence of sending them back to the Pope. We accordingly gaveletters to these persons, reciting all that had hithertooccurred; but they got no farther than the residence of dukeMontij, where we joined them on our return homewards. Next day,being Easter, after prayers and a slight breakfast, we departedfrom the court of Baatu in much dejection of spirits, accompaniedby two guides. We were so feeble that we could hardly support thefatigue of riding, our only food during Lent having been milletboiled with water, and our only drink melted snow. Passingeastwards through Comania, we travelled continually with greatexpedition, changing our horses five times a day, and sometimesoftener; except when we had to pass through deserts, on whichoccasions we had stronger horses allowed, that were able toundergo the whole labour. In this manner we travelled, almostwithout ceasing, from the beginning of Lent, until eight daysafter Easter, including our journey to the court of Baatu.

On the north of Comania, immediately beyond Russia, lie thepeople called Morduyni-Byleri[1] in great Bulgaria, and theBastarci in great Hungary; beyond the Bastarci are the Parositaeand Samogetae; and beyond these, on the desert shores of theocean, a people who are said to have dogs faces. On the south,Comania has the Alani, Circassians, Gazarians, Greece, andConstantinople, the land of the Iberians, the Cattes, theBrutaches, who are said to be Jews, who shave the whole of theirheads, and the lands of the Scythians, Georgians, Armenians, andTurks. On the west are Hungary and Russia. Comania is a countryof great length and breadth, the inhabitants of which were mostlyextirpated by the Tartars, though many of them were reduced tobondage and some fled, but the fugitives have in generalreturned, and now serve the Tartars. We next entered the land ofthe Kangittae, which has few inhabitants, owing to a greatscarcity of water. From this circ*mstance, several of theservants of Jeroslaus, duke of Russia, perished in the desert,when travelling to join him in the land of the Tartars. Both hereand in Comania, we found many human bones and skulls in largeheaps[2]. The Comanians and Kangittae, were pagans who dwelt intents, and lived entirely on the produce of their flocks andherds, without practising any tillage whatever. On theirconquest, a great part of the Kangittae were rooted out by theTartars, and the remnant reduced to bondage.

[1] The Morduyni, Morduas, or Merdas, were probablythe same people with those now called Tscheremisses, who callthemselves Mari-murt, or the people of Mari.--E.

[2] Probably Tartar trophies of victory. Even Timour,the great Mongol conqueror after Zingis, so much vaunted by manywriters for his virtues and humanity, used to order the erectionof immense pyramids of recent human heads, in memory ofvictory.--E.

SECTION XXIV.

The arrival of Carpini at the first Station of the newEmperor.

From the land of the Kangittae we entered the country of theBisermini, who speak the Comanian language and observe the law ofMahomet. In this country we saw innumerable ruined cities andcastles, and many towns left desolate. The former sovereign ofthis country, which is full of high mountains, was called AltiSoldan, who, with all his lineage, was destroyed by the Tartars.On the south side lie Jerusalem and Baldach, or Bagdat; and onits nearest borders dwell two Tartar dukes, Burin and Cadan, sonsof Thiaday the son of Zingis-chan. To the north is the land ofthe black Kitayans and the ocean[1]. Syban, the brother of Baatu,dwells in the land of the Bisermini. We travelled in this countryfrom Ascension-day until eight days before the feast of St Johnthe Baptist, 16th June, when we entered the land of the blackKitayans, in which the emperor has built a house, where we wereinvited to drink, and the resident there for the emperor, causedthe principal people of the city, and even his own two sons, todance before us[2]. Going from thence we came to a certain sea,having a small mountain on its banks, in which there is said tobe a hole, whence such vehement tempests of wind issue in winter,that travellers can hardly pass without imminent danger. Insummer the noise of the wind is heard proceeding from this hole,but it is then quite gentle. We travelled along the shore of thissea for several days, leaving it upon our left; and though thissea is not of very large dimensions, it contains a considerablenumber of islands[3]. Ordu, whom we have already mentioned as thesenior of all the Tartar dukes, dwells in this country, in theorda or court of his father, where one of his wives bears rule.For, according to the Tartar customs, the courts of princes andnobles are never dissolved at their deaths, but are kept up underthe government of one of his wives, to whom the gifts arecontinued which used to be given to their lords. In this place,therefore, we arrived at the first court under the immediatejurisdiction of the emperor, in which one of his wives dwelt; butas we had not yet been presented to the emperor, we were notinvited, or even permitted to enter the station, but wereexceedingly well entertained in our tent, after the Tartarfashion, and were allowed to remain there one day for rest andrefreshment.

[1] The confused geographical notices of thistraveller are so uninstructive, as not to merit any commentary. Agood account of the present state of these immense regions willbe found in Pinkerton's Modern Geography, articles IndependentTartary, Chinese Tartary, and Asiatic Russia. The ancient andperpetually changing distribution of nations in Scythia orTartary, in its most extended sense, almost elude research, andwould require lengthened dissertations instead of illustrativenotes.--E.

[2] From the subsequent travels of Rubruquis, it willappear, that this ceremony was in honour of the Tartar messengersgoing from Baatu to the emperor, not from respect to the papalenvoys.--E.

[3] This sea is obviously the lake Balkash, orPalkati-nor, at the south end of which our maps represent a groupof islands.--E.

SECTION XXV.

The Arrival of Carpini at the Court of the Emperorelect.

Leaving this place on the eve of St Peter and Paul, 28th June,we entered the country of the pagan Naymani[1], and next day wasexcessively cold, attended by a great fall of snow. Indeed thiscountry is very mountainous and excessively cold, and has verylittle plain ground, wherefore these nations had no tillage, butdwelt in tents, which were destroyed by the Tartars. We travelledthrough this country for many days, and at length entered theland of the Mongals, whom we call Tartars. Through this lattercountry we continued our journey for about three weeks,continually riding with great expedition, and at length arrivedat the residence of the emperor elect, on the feast of MaryMagdalen, 22d July. In the whole of this journey we usedextraordinary exertion, as our Tartar guides were ordered tobring us with all expedition to attend the solemn court which hadbeen long appointed for the election of the emperor: on whichaccount we always travelled from early morning till night,without stopping to take food; and we often came to our quartersso late, as not to get any food that night, but were forced toeat in the morning what we ought to have had for supper. Wechanged horses frequently every day, and travelled constantly ashard as our horses could trot.

[1] The Soongaria of modernGeography.--E.

SECTION XXVI.

Of the Reception of the papal Nuncios at the court ofKujak, or Cuyne-Khan.

On our arrival at the court of Cuyne, he ordered us to beprovided with a tent, and all necessary expences, after theTartar customs, and his people treated us with more attention andrespect than they shewed to any other messengers. We were notadmitted into his presence, as he had not been formally electedand invested in the empire; but the translation of the Pope'sletters, and of our speech, had been transmitted to him by Baatu.After remaining in this place for five or six days, we were sentto his mother, who kept a solemn court. In this place we beheldan immense tent, so vast, in our opinion, that it could havecontained two thousand men; around which there was an enclosureof planks, painted with various figures. All the Tartar dukeswere assembled in this neighbourhood, with their attendants, andamused themselves in riding about the hills and vallies. Thefirst day these were all clothed in white robes. The second day,on which Cuyne came to the great tent, they were dressed inscarlet. The third day they were dressed in blue, and on thefourth in rich robes of Baldakin[1]. In the wall of boards,encircling the great tent, there were two gates, through one ofwhich the emperor alone was allowed to enter; and though it stoodcontinually open, there were no guards, as no one dared to enteror come out by that way. All who were admitted entered by theother gate, at which there were guards, armed with bows, arrows,and swords. If any one presumed to approach the tent beyond theassigned limits, he was severely beaten, if caught; or if heattempted to run away, he was shot at with arrows. Many of thepeople whom we saw here, had upon their saddles, bridles, andother trappings of their horses, to the value of twenty marks inpure gold, according to our estimation.[2]

[1] This term probably signifies the manufacture ofBaldach or Bagdat, and may refer to silken stuffs damasced, orwoven with gold flowers.--E.

[2] Taking the mark of gold at 84 oz. and valuing theounce at 4£ 17s, 6d, the sum of 20 marks amounts to L. 780Sterling.--E.

The dukes assembled in the great tent, and consulted together,as we thought, about the election of the emperor. The rest of thepeople were collected all round the wooden walls, and at aconsiderable distance; and in this manner they continued tillalmost noon. Then they began to drink mares milk, or cosmos, andcontinued to drink amazing quantities till evening. We wereinvited among them, and they treated us with ale, as we did notdrink cosmos. They intended this as a great honour, but they madeus drink so much, in comparison with our ordinary diet, as wewere not able to endure; but on making them understand that itwas hurtful to us, they desisted from insisting on ourcompliance. On the outside of the door stood Jeroslaus, duke ofSusdal in Russia, a great many dukes of the Kithayans andSolangi, the two sons of the king of Georgia, the envoy of thecaliph of Bagdat, himself a sultan, and more than ten otherSaracen sultans. We were informed by the agents, that there wereabove four thousand messengers present, partly from those whopaid tribute or sent presents, and from other sultans and dukeswho came to make their submission, or who had been sent for, andfrom the various governors of countries and places under theirauthority. All these were placed on the outside of the woodenwall of the great tent, and were supplied with drink; and theyalmost all gave to us and the duke Jeroslaus the place of honour,when in their company.

SECTION XXVII.

Of the Exaltation of Cuyne as Emperor.

We remained in this place, called Syra Orda, about four weeks.In our opinion the election was made here, though it was notpublished, because always when Cuyne came out of the tent he wasgreeted with a noise of music, and was saluted with beautifulrods tipt with scarlet wool, which was not done to any of theother dukes. Leaving this place, we all rode three or four milesto a fine plain, near a river among the mountains, where we foundanother tent erected, called the Golden Orda, in which Cuyne wasto have been installed in the imperial seat on the festival ofthe Assumption, 15th August; but on account of a vast fall ofhail, formerly mentioned, the ceremony was deferred. This tentwas erected upon pillars, covered over with plates of gold, andother beams were fixed to the pillars by gold nails. The wholewas superbly covered over with Baldakin, having other cloth onthe outside. We remained here till the feast of St Bartholomew,24th August; on which day an immense multitude convened, standingwith their faces to the south. Certain persons, at about astone's throw distance from the rest, were continually employedin making prayers and genuflexions, always proceeding slowly tothe south. We did not know whether they were making incantations,or whether they bowed their knees to God or otherwise, and wetherefore made no genuflexions. When this ceremony had continueda long while, the whole company returned to the tent, and Cuynewas placed upon the imperial throne. On which all the dukes kneltbefore him, and the same was done by all the people, except byus, who were not his subjects.

SECTION XXVIII.

Of the Age and Demeanour of Cuyne, and of his Seal.

When exalted to the imperial dignity, Cuyne seemed to be aboutforty or forty-five years old. He was of middle stature,exceedingly prudent, politic, serious, and grave in hisdemeanour, and was hardly ever seen to laugh or to behave lightlyin any respect, as was reported to us by certain Christians whowere continually about him. These Christians of his familyassured us likewise, that he would certainly become a Christian,because he always kept some Christian priests about his person,and had at all times a chapel of Christians established near hisgreat tent, in which the clergy sang their devotions publicklyand openly, and struck the regular hours on bells, according tothe custom of the Greek church, whatever number of Tartars orothers might be in the presence; while no other of the Tartardukes did any thing like this.

It is the custom of this emperor never to converse himselfwith any stranger, however high his rank, but always to hear, asit were, and to answer through an intermediate person: Whoeverproposes any matter to his consideration, or listens to hisreply, however great his quality, must remain on his knees thewhole time; and no one must presume to speak on any subject afterthe determination of the emperor is expressed. For the dispatchof affairs, both public and private, he has agents, secretaries,scribes, and officers of all kinds, excepting pleaders; as everything is concluded according to his will and pleasure, withoutstrife or judicial noise: and the other princes of the Tartarsact exactly in the same manner.

While we remained at his court, the emperor and all hisprinces erected a standard of defiance against the church of God,the Roman empire, and all the Christian kingdoms and nations ofthe west, unless they should become obedient to his commands.Their avowed intention is to subdue the whole earth under theirauthority, as they were commanded by Zingis-khan, and they haveonly abstained from this intention of late, on account of thedeath of Occaday-khan, the emperor's father, who was poisoned. Ofall the nations under heaven, they are in some fear of theChristians only, and on this account they are now preparing tomake war on us. In all his letters their emperor styles himselfthe Power of God and the Emperor of Mankind; and the seal of thepresent emperor is thus inscribed:

GOD IN HEAVEN; AND CUYNE-KHAN ON EARTH, THE POWER OF GOD: THESEAL OF THE EMPEROR OF ALL MEN.

SECTION XXIX.

Of the Admission of the Papal and other Envoys to theEmperor.

We were called into the presence of the emperor, in the sameplace where he had been inaugurated; and Chingay, his chiefsecretary, having written down our names, and the names of thosewho sent us, and the name of the duke of Solangi and others, heread over all these names in a loud voice to the emperor and theassembled dukes. Then everyone of us bowed the knee four timesbefore him, and having warned us to beware of touching thethreshold, we were carefully searched lest we might have anyconcealed weapons; after which, we entered within the precinct ofthe imperial tent at the east gate; not even the Tartar dukesdare presume to enter at the west gate, which is reserved for theemperor alone; yet the lower people do not pay much regard tothis ceremonious injunction. At this time, likewise, all theother envoys now at the imperial residence were presented, butvery few of them were admitted within the tent. On this occasion,infinite quantities of rich gifts of all kinds were presented tothe emperor, by the various envoys and messengers, in samites,purple robes, baldakins, silken girdles wrought with gold, richfurs, and other things innumerable. Among these there was asplendid umbrella, or small canopy, to be carried over the headof the emperor, all covered over with gems. The governor of oneof the provinces brought a great number of camels, havinghousings of baldakin, and carrying richly ornamented saddles, onwhich were placed certain machines, within each of which a manmight sit. Many horses and mules likewise were presented to him,richly caparisoned and armed, some with leather, and some withiron. We were likewise questioned as to what gifts we had tooffer, but we were unable to present any thing, as almost ourwhole substance was already consumed. At a considerable distancefrom the court, there stood in sight on a hill, above fivehundred carts all filled with gold and silver and silkengarments. All these things were divided between the emperor andhis dukes, and the dukes divided their portions among theirfollowers, each according to his pleasure.

SECTION XXX.

Of the Separation between the Emperor and his Mother, andof the Death of Jeroslaus Duke of Russia.

Leaving this place we came to another, where a wonderfullygrand tent, all of red cloth, was pitched, the gift of theCathayans. At this place likewise, we were introduced into thepresence; and always on these occasions we were offered beer andwine to drink, and boiled flesh to eat when we were inclined. Inthis tent there was a lofty gallery made of boards, on which theimperial throne was placed, most exquisitely carved in ivory, andrichly decorated with gold and precious stones; and, if werightly remember, there were several steps by which to ascend thethrone. This throne was round above. There were benches allaround, where the ladies sat on the left hand, upon stools, andno one sat aloft on the right hand, but the dukes sat below onbenches, in the middle of the tent. Others sat behind them, andevery day there came great numbers of ladies to the court. Thesethree tents which we have mentioned, were of wonderful magnitude;and the wives of the emperor had other tents, sufficiently largeand beautiful, made of white felt. At this place, the emperortook leave of his mother, who went to one part of the land, andhe to another, to distribute justice. About this time, aconcubine belonging to the emperor was detected, who had poisonedhis father, at the time when the Tartar army was in Hungary, andowing to which incident, they had been ordered to return. She,and a considerable number of her accomplices, were tried and putto death. Soon afterwards, Jeroslaus, the great duke of Soldal[1]in Russia, being invited, as if to do him honour, by theemperor's mother, to receive meat and drink from her hand, grewsick immediately after returning to his lodging, and died inseven days illness, his whole body becoming strangely of a bluecolour; and it was currently reported that he had been poisoned,that the Tartars might freely and totally possess his land.

[1] Called Susdal in a formerpassage.--E.

SECTION XXXI.

How the Friars, in the presence of the Emperor,interchanged Letters

Soon afterwards, the emperor sent us to his mother, as heintended to set up a flag of defiance against all the nations ofthe west, as has been mentioned before; and he was desirous tokeep this circ*mstance from our knowledge. Having remained somedays with his mother, we returned to his court, where wecontinued a whole month, in such extreme distress for victualsand drink, that we could hardly keep ourselves alive; for theprovisions allowed us for four days, were scarcely sufficient toserve us for one day, neither could we go to purchase at thepublic market, as it was too far from us. But God sent to our aida Russian goldsmith, named Cosmas, who was considerably favouredby the emperor, and who procured us some food. This man shewed usthe imperial throne and seal, both of which he had been employedto make.

After some time, the emperor sent for us, and intimated, byChingay, his secretary, that we should write down our messagesand affairs, and deliver them to him, which we did accordingly.Many days afterwards, we were again called to the presence, andwere asked if there were any persons about the Pope whounderstood the Russian, Arabic, or Tartarian languages. To thiswe answered that we were ignorant of these languages, and thoughthere were Saracens in our land, they inhabited at a greatdistance from our lord the Pope; and we proposed, that when theyhad written in the Tartar language, they might explain themeaning to us, which we would carefully write down in ourlanguage, and would then deliver both the originals and thetranslation to his holiness. On this they went from us to theemperor. We were again called upon at Martinmas, when Kadac, thechief minister of the empire, with Chingay and Bala, and severalscribes, came to us and explained the emperor's letter, word forword; and when we had written it in Latin, they made us interpretevery sentence to them, to see if we had any way erred. And whenboth letters were written, they made us read them over twicemore, lest any thing were mistaken: Saying, "Take heed that everything be well understood, as great inconvenience might arise fromwrong conception." They gave us likewise a copy of the emperor'sletters in Arabic, in case any one might be found who couldexplain them in our country.

SECTION XXXII.

The Papal Envoys receive a Licence to depart.

These Tartar ministers informed us, that the emperor proposedto send envoys along with us; and it seemed to us, that theywished we should ask this from the emperor, and one of theprincipal among them advised us to make that request. But thisdid not appear at all convenient, and we answered, that it didnot become us to make any such petition; but if it were thepleasure of the emperor to send envoys, we should use our utmostendeavour, with God's assistance, to conduct them in safety. Wewere averse from this measure, for the following reasons: Lest,seeing the wars and dissensions which subsisted among theChristians, they should be the more encouraged to make war uponus: We were afraid that the messengers were meant to act asspies, to examine the approaches to our land: We dreaded thatthey might be slain by the way: for when the servants whichattended us, by desire of the cardinal legate of Germany, were ontheir return to him, they were well nigh stoned to death by theGermans, and forced to put off that hateful dress: And it is thecustom of the Tartars, never to make peace with those who haveslain their messengers, till they have taken a severe revenge.Fourthly, we feared their messengers might be taken from us bymain force. And lastly, because no good could arise from them, asthey were to have no other commission or authority, except merelyto deliver the letter of the emperor to the pope and princes ofChristendom, which letter we already had.

The third day after this, being the feast of St Brice, 13thNovember, we received our passport, and a letter sealed with theemperor's own seal; and going to the emperor's mother, she gaveeach of us a gown made of fox-skins, having the hair outwards,and a linen robe; from every one of which our Tartar attendantsstole a yard, and from those that were given to our servants,they stole a full half. We were perfectly aware of this knavery,but did not think it convenient to take any notice.

SECTION XXXIII.

The return of the Papal Envoys to Europe.

At length we took our departure, and travelled the wholewinter through the desert, often sleeping all night on the snow,unless when we cleared a piece of ground with our feet, andfrequently in the morning we found ourselves entirely covered bythe snow, which had drifted over us during the night. OnAscension day, we arrived at the court of Baatu, of whom weinquired what message we should deliver in his name to the Pope?To this he answered, that he had no message to give us in charge,but only that we should carefully deliver what we had receivedfrom the emperor. Having received additional passports from him,we continued our journey, and arrived at the station of Montij onthe Sabbath after the Whitson week, where our companions andservants, who had been kept so long from us, were returned at ourdesire. From thence we travelled to the station of Corrensa, whoagain required presents from us, but we now had none to give. Hehowever appointed two Comanians, of the lowest order of theTartar subjects, to accompany us to Kiow in Russia; but ourTartar guide did not quit us till we were beyond the Tartarbounds; after which the Comanians, who had been ordered byCorrensa to attend us, brought us in six days from the last guardof the Tartars, to the city of Kiow, where we arrived fifteendays before the festival of John the Baptist, 9th June 1248. Onreceiving notice of our approach, the whole inhabitants of Kiowcame out joyfully to receive us, congratulating us as menreturned from death to life; and we were received in a similarmanner in our whole progress through Russia, Poland, and Bohemia.Daniel, and his brother Wasilico, feasted us splendidly, anddetained us, contrary to our desire, for eight days. In themeantime, they and their bishops and nobles, having consulted onthose matters, which we had propounded to them, when on ourjourney towards the Tartars, made an unanimous declaration, thatthey would henceforwards hold the Pope as their special lord andholy father, and would adhere to the Roman church as their ladyand mistress, confirming all things which they had previouslysent on this subject, by their own abbot, to the Pope before ourreturn; and in ratification of all this, they sent envoys andletters along with us to the Pope[1].

[1] In Section XIX. of this journey, Wasilico, orWasiley, is mentioned as duke of Russia; but who must only havebeen duke of some subordinate province. This submission ofRussia, or of his particular dukedom, produced no fruit to theRomish see, as the Russian empire still remains what are calledGreek schismatics.--E.

CHAPTER IX.

Travels of William de Rubruquis intoTartary, about the year 1253.[1]

[1] Hakluyt, I. 80. for the Latin, and I.101. for theEnglish. See likewise Harris, I. 556.

INTRODUCTION.

These travels were undertaken by order of Louis IX. of France,usually called St Louis. In the original, or at least in theprinted copies which have come down to our times, Rubruquis issaid to have commenced his journey in the year 1253; but thisdate is attended with some difficulties, as we are certain thatking Louis was a prisoner from 1249 to 1254. It is possible,indeed, that he may have dispatched this mission while aprisoner; yet it is more probable, that the date may have beenvitiated in transcription. The real name of this early traveller,who was a friar of the minorite order, is said to have been VanRuysbroek[2], from a village of that name near Brussels,Latinized, or Frenchified rather, into De Rubruquis. By Hakluythe is named Rubruk. The version here offered to the public, is atranslation from the Latin copy in Hakluyt, as addressed by theadventurous traveller to his royal master, after his return fromtraversing the whole extent of Tartary; the English translation,by that early and meritorious collector, being far too antiquatedfor modern readers.

[2] Pinkerton, Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.

Dedication by the Author

To the Most Excellent and Most Christian Lord Louis, by theGrace of GOD the illustrious King of the French; Friar William deRubruquís, the meanest of the Minorite Order, wishethhealth and continual triumph in CHRIST JESUS.

It is written in the book of Ecclesiasticus, "That the trulywise man shall travel through strange countries; for he hathtried the good and evil among men." All this, Sire, I haveperformed; and I wish I may have done so as a wise man, and notas a fool. For many do foolishly those things which have beendone by wise men, and I fear I may be reckoned among that number.But as you were pleased to command me at my departure, that Ishould write down every thing I saw among the Tartars, and shouldnot fear to write long letters, I now therefore obey your orders,yet with awe and reverence, as wanting fit language in which toaddress so great a king.

SECTION I.

Commencement of the Journey.

Be it known, therefore, to your sacred majesty, that in theyear 1253, on the 7th of May, we entered into the sea of Pontus,which the Bulgarians call the Great Sea[1]; which I was informed,by certain merchants, is 1008 miles in length, and is in a mannerdivided, about its middle, into two parts, by means of twoprovinces which project into it, one on the north, and the otheron the south. That which is on the south is called Synope, andcontains the castle and port of the Sultan of the Turks. Thenorthern province is called Gasaria by the Latins[2], andCassaria by the Greek inhabitants of its coast, which is the samewith Caesaria; and from thence certain headlands extendsouthwards into the sea, towards Synope, from the nearest part ofwhich they are 300 miles distant; so that the distance from thesepoints to Constantinople is 700 miles in length and breadth, and700 miles to Hiberia in the east, which is a province ofGeorgia.

[1] The Euxine or Black Sea. Though not expressed inthe text, he probably took his departure fromConstantinople.--E.

[2] By the Latins are here obviously meant theinhabitants of western Europe. The province here mentioned is theCrimea; the Taurica Chersonesus of the ancients, or the modernTaurida.--E.

We arrived in the province of Gasaria, or Casaria, which is ofa triangular form, having a city named Kersova on its westernextremity, in which St Clement suffered martyrdom. While sailingpast that city, we saw an island containing a church, which issaid to have been built by the angels. In the middle of thisprovince, and on a cape to the south, stands the city of Soldaia,directly facing Synope. And here all merchants land who come fromTurkey, in their way to the north, and embark here again on theirreturn from Russia and the north for Turkey; these latter bringermines and martins, and other valuable furs, and the formercarry cloths made of cotton, or bombasins, and silk webs, andaromatic spices. On the east of this province is the city ofMatriga[3], where the Tanais flows into the Pontus, by a mouth oftwelve miles wide[4]. Before this river enters the Euxine, itforms itself into a sea towards the north, of seven hundred milesin length and breadth, but in no place above six paces deep, sothat it is not navigable for large vessels: For which reason, themerchants of Constantinople, when they arrive at the city ofMatriga, send their barks to the Tanais, where they purchasedried fish, sturgeons, thosas, barbels, and many other sorts offish.

[3] At the mouth of one of the branches of the Kubanis the town of Temruck, formerly called Tmutrakhan by theRussians, and Tamatarcha by the Greeks; this has been corruptedto Tamaterca, Materca, and Matriga.--Forst.

[4] This obviously refers to the canal ofcommunication between the sea of Azoph and theEuxine.--E.

This province of Casaria has the sea on three sides; on thewest, where stands Kersova, or the city of St Clement; on thesouth, where is the city of Soldaia, at which we landed; and onthe east, where Matriga is situated at the mouth of the Tanais.To the east of that mouth is the city of Zikia, and the countriesof the Suevi and Hiberi still further east, all of which are notunder the dominion of the Tartars. To the south is Trebisond,which has its own prince, named Guido, who, although of theimperial race of Constantinople, is under the Tartar dominion;and next to it is Synope, which belongs to the sultan of theTurks, who is likewise subjected to the Tartars. Beyond this isthe country of Vastacius, whose son is named Astar, after hismaternal grandfather, and this country is not under the dominionof the Tartars. From the mouth of the Tanais to the Danube, andeven beyond the Danube towards Constantinople, includingWalachia, which is the country of Assanus, and the lesserBulgaria as far as Solonia, pay tribute to the Tartars, who oflate years have exacted an axe from each family, and all the cornwhich they find in heaps, in addition to the regular tribute.

We landed at Soldaia[5] on the 21st of May, where certainmerchants of Constantinople had previously arrived, who reportedthat ambassadors from the Holy Land were coming thither, on theirway to Sartach; although I had publickly declared on palm Sunday,in the church of St Sophia, that I was no ambassador from you orany one, and only travelled to these infidels, in conformity withthe rule of our order. On our arrival, these merchants advised meto be cautious of what I said; for, as they had already reportedthat I was an ambassador, if I should now say the contrary, Ishould be refused a free passage. Upon this, I addressed myselfto the lieutenants of the city, because the captains had gonewith the tribute to Baatu, and were not yet returned: saying, "Wehave heard in the Holy Land, that your lord Sartach[6] had becomea Christian, which hath greatly rejoiced all the Christians, andespecially the most Christian King of the French, who is there inpilgrimage, fighting against the Saracens, that he may redeem theHoly Land out of their hands: Wherefore, I desire to go toSartach, that I may carry him letters from the king my master, inwhich he gives him intelligence of importance to allChristendom." They received us graciously, and entertained ushospitably in the cathedral church; The bishop had been at thecourt of Sartach, and told me many good things concerning him,which I did not find afterwards to be true. They then gave us ourchoice, either to have carts drawn by oxen, for carrying ourbaggage, or sumpter horses; and the Constantinopolitan merchantsadvised me to purchase covered carts, like those in which theRussians carry their peltry, in which I should put every thingwhich was wanted for daily use; because, if I were to takepackhorses, I should be constrained to pack and unpack at everybaiting place, and that besides, I should ride more easily in thecarts than on horseback. By following their evil advice, I wastwo months in travelling to Sartach, which I might haveaccomplished in one on horseback. I had brought with me fromConstantinople fruits of various kinds, muscadel wine, anddelicate biscuits, to present to the captains, that I mightobtain free passage, having been advised by the merchants, thatthese persons gave a very cold reception to such as applied tothem empty handed. The governors or captains being absent, Icaused all these things to be packed up in one of the carts,being informed that they would be acceptable presents toSartach.

[5] Called likewise Soldeya, Soldadia and Sogdat, nowSudak.--E.

[6] Sartach was the son ofBaatu-khan.--E.

We began our journey about the beginning of June, having fourcovered carts of our own, and two others which they furnished tous, in which we carried our bedding, and we were allowed fiveriding horses for ourselves, our company consisting of fivepersons; viz. myself and my companion, Friar Bartholomew ofCremona, Goset, the bearer of these letters, the man of GodTurgeman[7], and a servant or slave, named Nicholas, whom I hadpurchased at Constantinople, out of the alms we had received. Thepeople of Soldaia likewise allowed us two men to drive our carts,and to take care of our horses and oxen.

[7] This name is probably meant to imply theTrucheman, Dragoman, or interpreter; and from the strangeappellative, Man of God, he may have been a monk fromConstantinople, with a Greek name, having that signification:perhaps Theander--E.

There are several lofty promontories on the shore of Casaria,between Kersova[8] and the mouth of the Tanais; and there areforty castles between Kersova and Soldaia, at almost each ofwhich a distinct language is spoken; and among these are manyGoths who speak the Teutonic language[9]. Beyond these mountains,towards the north, extends a most beautiful wood, in a plain,which is full of springs and rivulets; and beyond this wood is anextensive plain, continuing for five days journey to the northernextremity of this province, where it contracts into a narrowspace, having the sea on the east and west, and a great ditch isdrawn between these two seas. In this plain the Comani dweltbefore the coming of the Tartars, and compelled thebefore-mentioned cities and castles to pay tribute; and upon thecoming of the Tartars, so vast a multitude of the Comani tookrefuge in this province, flying to the sea shore, that the livingwere forced to feed upon the dying, as I was assured by amerchant, an eye-witness, who declared, that the survivors torein pieces with their teeth, and devoured the raw flesh of thedead as dogs do carrion. Towards the extremity of this province,there are many large lakes, having salt springs on their banks,and when the water of these springs reaches the lake, itcoagulates into hard salt like ice. From these salt springs,Sartach and Baatu draw large revenues; as people come from allparts of Russia to procure salt, and for each cart-load, they paytwo webs of cotton cloth, equal in value to half an yperpera.Many vessels come likewise by sea for salt, all of which paytribute, in proportion to the quantities which they carry away.On the third day after leaving Soldaia, we fell in with theTartars, on joining whom, I thought myself entered into a newworld; wherefore, I shall use my best endeavours to describetheir manners and way of life,

[8] Cherson or Kersona, called likewise Scherson,Schursi, and Gurzi.--E.

[9] These castles of the Goths, first mentioned byRubruquis, were afterwards noticed by Josaphat Barbaro, aVenetian, in 1436; and Busbeck conversed with some of these Gothsfrom the Crimea at Constantinople in 1562, and gives a vocabularyof their language. From the authority of Rubruquis misunderstood,some ancient map makers have inserted the Castella Judeoruminstead of Gothorum in the Crimea, and even Danville placed themin his maps under the name of Chateaux des Juifs, castles of theJews.--Forst.

SECTION II.

Of the Tartars and their Houses.

They have no permanent city, and they are ignorant of thefuture. They divide all Scythia among them; and each leader,according to the number of his followers, knows the boundaries ofhis pastures, and where he ought to feed his flocks in winter andsummer, and in spring and autumn. In winter they descend into thewarmer regions of the south, and in summer they travel towardsthe colder countries of the north. Such pastures as have nowater, are reserved for winter use, when there is snow on theground, as the snow there serves instead of water.

The houses in which they sleep are founded on a roundstructure of wattled rods, and the roof is formed of wickers,meeting above in a small roundel, from which arises a neck like achimney, all of which they cover with white felt; and they oftencover over the felt with lime, or white earth and powdered bonesto make it bright: sometimes their houses are black; and the feltabout the neck of the dome is decorated with a variety ofpictures. Before the door, likewise, they hang a felt, ornamentedwith painting; and they employ much coloured felt, painted withvines, trees, birds, and beasts, for decorating their dwellings.Some of these houses are so large as to measure thirty feet inbreadth. I once measured the distance between the wheel ruts ofone of their waggons to be twenty feet, and when the house wasupon the waggon, it spread beyond the wheels at least five feeton each side. I have counted twenty-two bullocks dragging onewaggon, surmounted by a house; eleven in one row, according tothe breadth or the waggon, and other eleven before these. Theaxle of this waggon was very large, like the mast of a ship; andone man stood in the door of the house, upon the waggon, urgingon the oxen. They likewise make quadrangular structures of smallsplit wicker, like large chests, and frame for them an arched lidor cover of similar twigs, having a small door at the front end;and they cover this chest or small house with black felt, smearedover with suet or sheeps' milk[1], to prevent the rain frompenetrating; and these are likewise decorated with paintings orfeathers. In these they put all their household goods andtreasure; and they bind these upon higher carts, drawn by camels,that they may be able to cross rivers without injuring theircontents. These chests are never taken down from the carts towhich they belong. When their dwelling-houses are unloaded fromthe waggons, their doors are always turned to the south; and thecarts, with the chests which belong to each house, are drawn upin two rows, one on each side of the dwelling, at about thedistance of a stone's throw.

[1] The butter from ewe-milk is probably heremeant.--E.

The married women get most beautiful carts made forthemselves, which I am unable to describe without the aid ofpainting, and which I would have drawn for your majesty, if I hadpossessed sufficient talents. One rich Moal, or Tartar, will havefrom a hundred to two hundred such carts with chests. Baatu hassixteen wives, each of whom has one large house, besides severalsmall ones, serving as chambers for her female attendants, andwhich are placed behind the large house; and to the large houseof each wife there belong two hundred chest-carts. When the campis formed, the house of the first wife is placed on the west, andall the rest extend in one line eastwards, so that the last wifeis on the east, or left of all. And between the station of eachwife there is the distance of a stone's throw, so that the courtof a rich Moal appears like a large city, but in which there arevery few men. One girl is able to lead twenty or thirty carts;for the ground being quite plain, they fasten the carts, whetherdrawn by camels or oxen, behind each other, and the girl sits onthe front of the foremost cart of the string, directing thecattle, while all the rest follow with an equable motion. If theycome to any difficult passage, the carts are untied from eachother, and conducted across singly; and they travel at a veryslow pace, only so fast as an ox or a lamb can easily walk.

SECTION III.

Of their Beds and Drinking-cups.

After having placed the house on the ground, with its doorturned to the south, the bed of the master is placed to thenorth, opposite the door. The place of the women is always on theeast, or on the masters left hand, where he sits on his bed withhis face to the south, and the place of the men on his righthand, to the west; and when any men enter into the house, theynever hang up their quivers on the womens side. Over the head ofthe lord there is placed an image or puppet of felt, which iscalled the masters brother, and a similar image over the head ofthe mistress, which is called her brother; and a little higherbetween these, there is one very small and thin, which is, as itwere, the keeper of the house. The mistress places at the foot ofher bed, on the right hand, in a conspicuous place, the skin of akid, stuffed with wool, or some such material, and beside that asmall puppet looking towards the maidens and women. Near thedoor, on the womens side of the house, there is another image,with a cows udder, as the guardian of the women who milk thekine. On the masters side of the door is another image, havingthe udder of a mare, being the tutelary deity of the men who milkthe mares. When they meet together for drinking, they, in thefirst place, sprinkle the master's idol with some of the liquor,and then all the rest in their order; after which a servant goesout of the house with a cup of drink, and sprinkles thricetowards the south, making a genuflexion between each, in honourof the fire, then towards the east, in honour of the air, nexttowards the west, in honour of the water, and lastly, towards thenorth, for the dead. When the lord takes the cup in his hand todrink, he first pours a part on the ground; and if he is to drinkon horseback, he first spills a portion on the neck and mane ofhis horse. After the servant has made his libations to the fourquarters of the world, he returns into the house, and two otherservants are ready with two other cups and salvers, to carrydrink to the lord and his wife, who sit together on a bed. Whenhe has more than one wife, she with whom he slept the nightbefore sits beside him that day, and all the other wives mustcome to her house that day to drink; and all the gifts which thelord receives that day are deposited in her chests. Upon a benchthere stands vessels of milk and other drinks, and drinkingcups.

SECTION IV.

Of their Kinds of Drink, and Fashion of Drinking.

In winter they make excellent drink of rice, millet, andhoney, which is clear like wine; and they have wine brought tothem from distant countries. In summer they care not for anydrink except cosmos, which always stands within the door, andbeside it is a minstrel with his instrument of music. I saw nociterns, lutes, and viols, such as ours, but they have many otherinstruments which we have not. When the lord begins to drink, oneof his servants exclaims aloud Ha! and the minstrel begins toplay. When they make a great feast, all the guests clap theirhands and dance to the music, the men before the lord, and thewomen before the lady of the house. When the lord hath drank, theservant calls out as before, and the minstrel ceases; then alldrink round in their turns, both men and women, and theysometimes carouse on hearing the news of a victory, to a shamefuland beastly degree. When they desire to provoke one to drink,they seize him by the ears, dragging them strongly, as if towiden his throat, clapping their hands, and dancing before him.When they mean to do great honour to any person, one takes a fullcup, having one on his right hand, and another on his left, andthese three advance towards him who is to receive the cup,singing and dancing before him; but when he reaches out his handto receive the cup, they suddenly draw back, and come forwardsagain in the same manner, and they thus delude him three or fourtimes, till he seems very eager, when they give him the cup, andkeep dancing, singing, and stamping with their feet, till he hasfinished his draught.

SECTION V.

Of their Food.

They eat indifferently of all dead animals, even such as havedied of disease; and among such numbers of cattle and flocks,many animals must die almost continually. Bat in summer, whenthey have plenty of cosmos, or mares milk, they care little forany other food. When an ox or horse happens to die, they cut itsflesh into thin slices, which they dry in the sun and air, whichpreserves it from corruption, and free from all bad smell. Fromthe intestines of their horses they make sausages, better thanthose which are made of pork, and which they eat when newly made,but the rest of the flesh is reserved for winter use. Of thehides of oxen they form large bags, which they dry in a wonderfulmanner in the smoke. Of the hinder part of their horse skins theyfabricate excellent sandals. They will make a meal for fifty, oreven an hundred men, of the carcase of one ram. This they mincein a bowl, mixed with salt and water, which is their onlyseasoning, and then, with the point of a knife, or a little forkmade on purpose, like those with which we eat pears and applesstewed in wine, they reach to every one of the company a morselor two, according to the number; the master of the house havingfirst served himself to his mind, before any of the rest, and ifhe gives a particular portion to any one, that person must eat itup, without giving any of it to another, or if he is unable toeat the whole, he takes it home with him, or gives it to hisservant to take care of, if he has one, otherwise he puts it intohis own saptargat, or square leather bag, which they carryalways with them for such purposes, or for preserving any boneswhich they have not time to pick thoroughly, that they may cleanthem well afterwards, and that nothing may be lost.

SECTION VI.

How they make the Drink called Cosmos.

Cosmos is made from mares milk, in the following manner: Theyfasten a long line between two posts fixed in the ground, and toit they tie the young foals of the mares which are to be milked,by which means the mares are induced to stand quietly besidetheir foals, and allow themselves to be milked. If any marehappens to be unruly, her foal is brought, and allowed to suck alittle, after which the milker again succeeds. Having thusprocured a quantity of new drawn milk, it is poured into a largeskin bag, which is immediately agitated by blows with a woodenclub, having its lower end hollow, and as large as a man's head.After some time the milk begins to ferment like new wine, and toacquire a degree of sourness. The agitation is continued in thesame manner until the butter comes; after which it is fit fordrinking, and has a pungent yet pleasant taste, like raspberrywine, leaving a flavour on the palate like almond milk. Thisliquor is exceedingly pleasant, and of a diuretic quality; isexhilarating to the spirits, and even intoxicating to weakheads.

Cara-cosmos, which means black cosmos, is made for the greatlords, in the following manner: The agitation, as beforedescribed, is continued until all the lees or coagulated portionof the milk subsides to the bottom, like the lees of wine, andthe thin parts remain above like whey, or clear must of wine. Thewhite lees are given to the servants, and have a strong soporificquality. The clear supernatent liquor is called cara-cosmos, andis an exceedingly pleasant and wholesome beverage[1]. Baatu hasthirty farms around his dwelling-place, at about a day's journeydistant, each of which supplies him daily with the caracosmosfrom the milk of an hundred mares, so that he receives the dailyproduce of three thousand mares, besides white cosmos which therest of his subjects contribute: For, as the inhabitants of Syriapay the third part of their productions to their lords, so theTartars pay their mares milk every third day.

[1] Under the name of Kumyss, this liquor is muchused by the Russian gentry, as a restorative for constitutionsweakened by disease or debauchery: and for procuring it theytravel to the Tartar districts of the empire.--E.

From the milk of their cows they make butter, which they donot salt for preservation, but boil and clarify it, after whichit is poured into bags made of sheep-skin, and preserved forwinter use. The residue of the milk is kept till it becomes quitesour, after which it is boiled, and the coagula or curds, whichform, are dried in the sun till quite hard, and are preserved inbags for winter provision. This sour curd, which they callgryut, when wanted for use in winter when they have nomilk, is put into a bag with hot water, and by dilligent beatingand agitation, is dissolved into a sour white liquor, which theydrink instead of milk; for they have a great aversion to drinkwater by itself.

SECTION VII.

Of the Beasts they eat, of their Garments, and of theirHunting parties.

The great lords have farms in the southern parts of theirdominions, from whence millet and flour are brought them forwinter provisions; and the meaner people procure these inexchange for sheep and skins. The slaves content themselves withthick water[2]. They do not eat either long tailed or shorttailed mice. There are many marmots in their country, which theycall Sogur, which gather during winter, in companies of twenty orthirty together, in burrows, where they sleep for six months;these they catch in great numbers and use as food. There arelikewise a kind of rabbits, with long tails like cats, havingblack and white hairs at the extremity of their tails. They havemany other small animals fit for eating, with which they are wellacquainted. I have seen no deer, and very few hares, but manyantelopes. I saw vast numbers of wild asses, which resemblemules. Likewise an animal resembling a ram, called artak,with crooked horns of such amazing size, that I was hardly ableto lift a pair of them with one hand. Of these horns they makelarge drinking-cups. They have falcons, gyrfalcons, and otherhawks in great abundance, all of which they carry on their righthands. Every hawk has a small thong of leather fastened round hisneck, the ends of which hang down to the middle of his breast;and before casting off after game, they bow down the hawk's headtowards his breast, by means of this thong, with their left hand,lest he be tossed by the wind, or should soar too high [3]. TheTartars are most expert hunters, and procure a great part oftheir sustenance by the chase.

[2] Whether the author here means the dissolved sourcurd, mentioned at the close of the former Section, or gruel madefrom meal and water, does not appear.--E.

[3] Our falconers use the left hand for carryingtheir hawks. I leave the inexplicable use of the thongs to beunderstood by professional falconers.--Hakluyt, adloc.

When the Tartars intend to hunt wild beasts, a vast multitudeof people is collected together, by whom the country issurrounded to a large extent in a great circle; and by graduallycontracting this circle towards its centre, they at lengthcollect all the included game into a small space, into which thesportsmen enter and dispatch the game with their arrows.

From Cataya, and other regions of the east, and from Persia,and other countries of the south they procure silk stuffs, clothof gold, and cotton cloth, of which they make their summergarments. From Russia, Moxel, Greater Bulgaria, Pascatir, whichis the greater Hungary, and Kersis, all of which are northerncountries and full of woods, and from other countries towards thenorth which are subject to their authority, they procure valuablefurs of many kinds, which I have not seen in our parts. Withthese they make their winter garments; and they have always atleast two fur gowns, one of which has the fur inwards, and theother has the fur outwards to the wind and snow; which outergarments are usually made of the skins of wolves, foxes, orbears. But while they sit within doors, they have gowns of finerand more costly materials. The garments of the meaner sort aremade of the skins of dogs and goats.

They likewise have breeches made of skins. The rich often linetheir garments with silk shag, which is exceedingly soft, light,and warm. The poor line theirs with cotton cloth, wadded with thefinest wool which they can sort out from their fleeces; and ofthe coarser wool they make felts for covering their houses andchests, and for sleeping upon. Their ropes are likewise made ofwool, mixed with a third part of horse hair. Of felt they alsomake cloths to lay under their saddles, and caps to defend theirheads from rain. In all these things they use vast quantities ofwool. Your majesty has seen the habits of these people[4].

[4] Probably this concluding sentence means, that asthe king of France had seen some Tartars in Syria, the author didnot deem it necessary to describe their form andfashions.--E.

SECTION VIII.

Of the Fashion of their Hair, and the Ornaments of theirWomen.

The men have a square tonsure on their crowns, from the twofront corners of which they shave two seams down to theirtemples. The temples also, and hinder part of the head, to thenape of the neck, are shaved, and the forehead, except one smalllock which falls down to the eyes. On each angle of the hindhead, they leave a long lock of hair, which they braid and knottogether under each ear. The dress of unmarried women differslittle from that of the men, except in being somewhat longer. Buton the day after marriage, the head is shaved, from the middledown to the forehead, and the woman puts on a wide gown, likethat of a monk, but wider and longer. This opens before, and istied under the right side. In this the Tartars and Turks differ,as the Turks tie their garments always on the left side. Theyhave an ornament for their heads which they call Botta, which ismade of the bark of a tree or any other very light substance,made in a round form, so thick as may be grasped with both hands,becoming square at the upper extremity, and in all about two feetlong, somewhat resembling the capital of a pillar. This cap ishollow within, and is covered over with rich silk. On the top ofthis they erect a bunch of quills, or slender rods, about a cubitlong, or even more, which they ornament with peaco*cks feathers onthe top, and all around with the feathers of a wild drake, andeven with precious stones. The rich ladies wear this ornament onthe top of their heads, binding it on strongly with a kind of hator coif, which has a hole in its crown adapted for this purpose,and under this they collect their hair from the back of the head,lapped up in a kind of knot or bundle within the botta; and thewhole is fixed on by means of a ligature under their throat.Hence, when a number of these ladies are seen together onhorseback, they appear at a distance like soldiers armed withhelmets and lances. The women all sit astride on horseback likemen, binding their mantles round their waists with silken scarfsof a sky-blue colour, and they bind another scarf round theirbreasts. They likewise have a white veil tied on just below theireyes, which reaches down to their breasts. The women areamazingly fat, and the smaller their noses, they are esteemed themore beautiful. They daub over their faces most nastily withgrease; and they never keep their beds on account ofchild-bearing.

SECTION IX.

Of the Duties and Labours of the Women, and of theirNuptials.

The employments of the women are, to lead the waggons, to loadand unload the horses, to milk the cows, to make butter andgryut, to dress skins, and to sew them together, which theygenerally do with sinews finely split and twisted into longthreads. They likewise make sandals, and socks, and othergarments, and felts for covering their houses. They never washtheir garments, alleging that it would offend God, and thathanging them up to dry would occasion thunder; and they even beatany person who pretends to wash their garments, and take theirclothes from them. They are astonishingly afraid of thunder,during which they turn all strangers from their dwellings, andwrapping themselves in black felt, remain covered up till it isover. They never wash their bowls or dishes; or if they do washthe platters into which the boiled meat is to be put, they do itmerely with the scalding broth, which they throw back into thepot.

The men make bows and arrows, saddles, bridles, and stirrups,construct houses and carts, takes care of the horses, and milkthe mares, agitate the cosmos or mares milk, make leather sacks,in which these are kept, take care of, and load the camels, tendthe cows, sheep, and goats, and these are sometimes milked by themen, sometimes by the women. They dress hides with sheeps milk,thickened and salted. When they mean to wash their head andhands, they fill their mouths with water, which they squirt outgradually on their hands, and moisten their hair or wash theirheads.

No man can have a wife unless by purchase; so that many maidsare rather old before marriage, as their parents always keep themtill they can get a good market. They keep the first and seconddegrees of consanguinity inviolate, but pay no regard toaffinity, as one man may have either at once, or successively twosisters. Widows never marry, as their belief is, that all whohave served a man in this life, shall do so in the next; so thatwidows believe that they shall return after death to theirhusbands. Hence arises an abominable custom among them, that theson sometimes marries all his father's wives except his ownmother; for the court or household of the father and motheralways devolves to the younger son, and he has to provide for allhis father's wives, which fall to his share along with theinheritance; and he considers, that if he takes his father'swives, it will be no injury or disgrace to him though they wentto his father in the next world. When any one has made a bargainwith another for his daughter, the father of the maid gives afeast to the bridegroom, and the bride runs away and hidesherself in the house of one of her relations. Then the fathersays to the bridegroom, "My daughter is now yours, take herwherever you can find her." On which he seeks for her, with theassistance of his friends, till he discovers her concealment, andthen leads her as if by violence to his house.

SECTION X.

Of their Laws and Judgments, and of their Death andBurial.

When two men fight, no one must interfere to part them,neither may a father presume to aid his own son; but he whoconsiders himself injured must appeal to the court of his lord,and whoever shall offer him any violence after this appeal is putto death. He who is appealed against, must go without delay, andthe appellant leads him as a prisoner. No one is punishedcapitally, unless taken in the act, or unless he confesses; butwhen witnessed against by many, he is severely tortured to extortconfession. Homicide, adultery, and fornication, are punishedwith death; but a man may use his own slave as he pleases. Greatthefts are punished capitally; but for small ones, as forstealing a sheep, when the party is not caught in the fact, butotherwise detected, the thief is cruelly beaten. And when anhundred strokes are to be given by order of the court, an hundredseparate rods are required, one for each blow. Pretendedmessengers are punished with death, as are likewise sacrilegiouspersons, whom they esteem witches, of which more will be saidhereafter.

When any one dies, he is mourned for with violent howlings,and the mourners are free from tribute during a whole year. Anyone who happens to enter a house, in which a grown up person liesdead, must not enter the house of Mangu-khan during a whole year;if the dead person is a child, he is only debarred for onelunation. One house is always left near the grave of thedeceased; but the burial place of any of the princes of the raceof Jenghis-khan is always kept secret; yet there is always afamily left in charge of the sepulchres of their nobles, though Ido not find that they deposit any treasure in these tombs. TheComanians raise a large barrow or tomb over their dead, and erecta statue of the person, with his face turned towards the east,holding a drinking cup in his hand; they erect likewise, over thetombs of the rich, certain pyramids or sharp pinnacles. In someplaces, I observed large towers built of burnt bricks, and othersof stone, though no stones were to be found about the place. Isaw the grave of a person newly buried, in honour of whom therewere hung up sixteen horses hides, four of which towards eachquarter of the world, between high poles; and beside the gravethey had set cosmos, that the deceased might drink, and flesh forhim to eat, although the person was said to have been baptized.Farther east, I saw other kinds of sepulchres, consisting oflarge areas, paved with stone, some round and others square,having four large stones placed upright around the pavement, andfronting the four cardinal points. When any one lies sick in bed,a mark is affixed to the house, that no one may enter, as no oneever visits the sick, except his own servant; and when any onebelonging to the great courts is sick, watchmen are placed at agreat distance, all round, that no one may enter the precincts;as they dread lest evil spirits, or bad winds, might enter alongwith visitors. They consider their soothsayers, or people whopractise divination, as priests.

SECTION XI.

Of our first Entering among the Tartars, and of theirIngratitude.

When we first entered among these Tartars, after having madeus wait for them a long time, under the shade of certain blackcarts, a considerable number of them on horseback surrounded us.Their first question was, whether we had ever before been amongthem; and being answered in the negative, they began impudentlyto beg some of our victuals; and we gave them some of thebiscuits and wine, which we had brought with us fromConstantinople. Having drank one flaggon of our wine theydemanded more, saying, that a man does not enter a house with onefoot only. But we excused ourselves, as not being well provided.They next inquired, whence we came, and whither we were going? Tothis I answered, that hearing Sartach was become a Christian, wewished to go to him, that we might present your majestys lettersto him. They then asked if we came of our own accord, or weresent upon this errand. To this I said, that no one had compelledme, and that I had come voluntarily, and by the desire of mysuperiors; being cautious not to say that I was the ambassadorfrom your majesty. They then required to know if our cartscontained gold and silver, or precious vestments, as presents forSartach. To which I answered, that Sartach should see what wecarried when we came to his presence, and that they had nothingto do with such questions, but ought to conduct me to theircaptain; that he, if he thought proper, might direct me to becarried to Sartach, otherwise I should return. There then was inthis province one Scacatai, or Zagathai, related to Baatu, towhom the emperor of Constantinople had written requisitorialletters, that I might be permitted to proceed on my journey. Onbeing informed of this, they supplied us with horses and oxen,and appointed two men to conduct us on our journey, and thosewhich we had brought with us from Soldaia returned. Yet they madeus wait a long while, continually begging our bread to give totheir children; and they admired and coveted every thing they sawabout our servants, as their knives, gloves, purses, and points.But when we excused ourselves from their importunity, allegingthat we had a long journey before us, and must not give awaythose things which were necessary for ourselves, they reviled meas a nigg*rd; and though they took nothing by force, they wereexceedingly impudent, and importunate in begging, to have everything they saw. If a man gives them any thing, it may beconsidered as thrown away, for they have no gratitude; and asthey look upon themselves as the lords of the world, they thinkthat nothing should be refused to them by any one; yet, if onegives them nothing, and afterwards stands in need of theirassistance, they will not help him. They gave us some of theirbutter milk, called Apram, which is extremely sour. Afterthis we left them, thinking that we had escaped out of the handsof the demons, and the next day we arrived at the quarters oftheir captain. From the tune when we left Soldaia, till we got toSartach, which took us two months, we never lay under a house ora tent, but always in the open air, or under our carts; neitherdid we see any town, or the vestiges of any buildings where avillage had been; though we saw vast numbers of the tombs of theComanians. On the same evening, our conductor gave us somecosmos, which was very pleasant to drink, but not having beenaccustomed to that liquor, it occasioned me to sweat mostprofusely.

SECTION XII.

Of the Court of Zagathai, and how the Christians drink noCosmos.

Next morning, we met the carts of Zagathai, laden with houses,and I thought that a great city was travelling towards us. I wasastonished at the prodigious droves of oxen and horses, and theimmense flocks of sheep, though I saw very few men to guide them;which made me inquire how many men he had under his command, andI was told he had not above 500 in all, half of whom we hadalready passed at another station. Then the servant who conductedus, informed me that it was requisite for us to make a present toZagathai, and desired us to stop while he went forwards, toannounce our arrival. It was then past three o'clock, and theTartars unladed their houses near a certain water. After this,the interpreter of Zagathai came to us, and learning that we hadnot been before among them, he demanded some of our victuals,which we gave him; he also required to have some garments, as areward for his trouble in interpreting for us to his master; butwe excused ourselves on account of our poverty. He then asked uswhat we intended to present to his lord, when we shewed him aflaggon of wine, and filled a basket with biscuit, and a platterwith apples and other fruits; but he was not satisfied, as we hadnot bought him some rich stuffs. However, we entered into thepresence of Zagathai with fear and bashfulness; he was sitting ona bed, having a small citern or lute in his hand, and his wifesat beside him, who, I really believe, had amputated her nose,between the eyes, that it might be the flatter, for she had nonose in that part of her face, which was smeared over with blackointment, as were also her eyebrows, which seemed very filthy inour eyes. I then repeated to him the exact same words which I hadused before, respecting the object of our journey, as we had beenadmonished by some who had been among them formerly, never tovary in our words. I requested that he would deign to accept oursmall gift; for, being monks, it was contrary to the rules of ourorder to possess gold or silver or rich garments; on whichaccount, we had no such things to offer, and hoped he wouldaccept some portion of our victuals as a blessing. He receivedthose things, and immediately distributed them among his men, whowere met in his house to drink. I likewise presented to him theletters from the emperor of Constantinople. He then sent these toSoldaia to be translated, because, being in Greek, there was noperson about him who understood that language. He asked if wewould drink cosmos? For the Russian, Greek, and AlanianChristians, who happen to, be among the Tartars, and conformstrictly to their own laws, do not drink that liquor, and eventhink they are not Christians who do so; and their priests, aftersuch conduct, formally reconcile them again to the church, as ifthey had thereby renounced the Christian faith. I answered thatwe had still a sufficiency of our own drink, but when that wasdone, we should be under the necessity of using what might begiven us. He next asked us, what the letters contained which wecarried to Sartach? I answered that these were sealed, andcontained only the words of friendship and good will. He askedwhat I meant to say to Sartach? To this I answered, that I shouldspeak to him the words of the Christian faith. He asked whatthese were, as he would willingly hear them? I then expounded tohim the apostles creed, as well as I was able, by means of ourinterpreter, who was by no means clever or eloquent. On hearingthis he shook his head, but made no reply. He then appointed oxenand horses for our use, and two men to attend upon us; but hedesired us to abide with him, until the messenger should returnwith the translation of the emperors letters from Soldaia. Wearrived at the horde of Zagathai, in the Ascension week, and weremained with him until the day after Pentecost, or WhitsunTuesday, being ten days in all.

SECTION XIII.

How some Alanians visited them on the Eve ofPentecost.

On the eve of Pentecost or Whitsunday, there came to uscertain Alanians, called there Acias or Akas, who are Christiansafter the Greek form, using Greek books, and having Grecianpriests, but they are not schismatics like the Greeks as theyhonour all Christians without exception. These men brought ussome sodden flesh, which they offered us to eat, and requested usto pray for one of their company who had died. But I explained tothem the solemnity of the festival, and that we could eat noflesh at this time. They were much pleased with our exposition,as they were ignorant of every thing relative to the Christianrites, the name of Christ alone excepted. They and many otherChristians, both Russians and Hungarians, demanded of us if theymight be saved, having been constrained to drink cosmos, and toeat the flesh of animals that had been slain by the Saracens andother infidels; which the Greek and Russian priests consider asthings strangled or offered to idols. They were likewise ignorantof the times of fasting, neither could they have observed thesein this region, even if they had known their times and seasons. Ithen instructed them as well as I could, and strengthened them inthe faith. We reserved the flesh which they had brought us untilthe feast day, for there was nothing to be bought among theTartars for gold and silver, but only for cloth and garments,which we had not to dispose of. When our servants offered any ofthe coin which they call yperpera [1], they rubbed it with theirfingers, and smelt it, to see whether it were copper. All thefood they supplied us with was sour, and filthy cows milk; andthe water was so foul and muddy, by reason of their numeroushorses, that we could not drink it. If it had not been for thegrace of God, and the biscuit we brought with us, we had surelyperished.

[1] Or hyperpyron, a coin said to be of the value oftwo German dollars, or six and eightpenceSterling.--E.

SECTION XIV.

Of a Saracen who desired to be Baptized, and of men whoseemed Lepers.

Upon the day of Pentecost, a Saracen came to visit us, to whomwe explained the articles of the Christian faith; particularlythe salvation of sinners, through the incarnation of Jesus, theresurrection of the dead, and judgment to come, and how throughbaptism all sin was washed out. He seemed much affected withthese doctrines, and even expressed a desire to be baptized; butwhen we were preparing for that ceremony, he suddenly mounted onhorseback, saying that he must first consult his wife; and hereturned next day, declining to receive baptism, because he wouldnot then be allowed to drink cosmos, without which, he could notlive in that country. From this opinion, I could not move him byany arguments; so that these people are much estranged frombecoming Christians, by the assertion of that opinion by theRussians, and other Christians, who come among them in greatnumbers.

On the same day, which was the morrow of the feast ofPentecost, Zagathai gave us one man to conduct us to Sartach, andtwo others to guide us to the next station, which was at thedistance of five days journey for our oxen. We were presentedalso with a goat to serve us as food, and a great many skin bagsof cows milk, but they gave us very little cosmos, as that liquoris in great estimation among themselves.

From the station of Zagathai we travelled directly north, andour attendants began to pilfer largely from us, because we tooktoo little heed of our property, but experience at length taughtus wisdom. At length we reached the bounds of this province,which is fortified by a deep ditch, from sea to sea[1].Immediately beyond this ditch, we came to the station to whichour conductors belonged, where all the inhabitants seemed to beinfected with leprosy; and certain base people are placed here toreceive the tribute from all who come for salt from the salt pitsformerly mentioned. We were told that we should have to travelfifteen days farther before meeting with any other inhabitants.With these people we drank cosmos, and we presented them inreturn with a basket of fruits and biscuit; and they gave useight oxen and a goat, and a vast number of bladders full ofmilk, to serve as provision during our long journey. But bychanging our oxen, we were enabled in ten days to attain the nextstation, and through the whole way we only found water in someditches, dug on purpose, in the vallies, and in two small rivers.From leaving the province of Casaria, we traveled directlyeastwards, having the sea of Azoph on our right hand, and a vastdesert on the north, which, in some places, is twenty daysjourney in breadth, without mountain, tree, or even stone; but itis all excellent pasture. In this waste the Comani, calledCapchat[2], used to feed their cattle. The Germans called thesepeople Valani, and the province Valania; but Isidore terms thewhole country, from the Tanais, along the Paulus Maeotis, Alania.This great extent would require a journey of two months, from oneend to the other, even if a man were to travel post as fast asthe Tartars usually ride, and was entirely inhabited by theCapchat Comanians; who likewise possessed the country between theTanais, which divides Europe from Asia, and the river Edil orVolga, which is a long ten days journey. To the north of thisprovince of Comania Russia is situate, which is all over full ofwood, and reaches from the north of Poland and Hungary, all theway to the Tanais or Don. This country has been all wasted by theTartars, and is even yet often plundered by them.

[1] From this circ*mstance it is obvious, that thejourney had been hitherto confined to Casaria, or the Crimea, andthat he had now reached the lines or isthmus ofPrecop.--E.

[2] In the English translation of Hakluyt, this wordis changed to Capthak, and in the collection of Harris toCapthai; it is probably the Kiptschak of theRussians.--E.

The Tartars prefer the Saracens to the Russians, because thelatter are Christians: and when the Russians are unable tosatisfy their demands for gold and silver, they drive them andtheir children in multitudes into the desert, where theyconstrain them to tend their flocks and herds. Beyond Russia isthe country of Prussia, which the Teutonic knights have latelysubdued, and they might easily win Russia likewise, if they soinclined; for if the Tartars were to learn that the sovereignPontiff had proclaimed a crusade against them, they would allflee into their solitudes.

SECTION XV.

Of our Distresses, and of the Comanian funerals.

In our journey eastwards we saw nothing but the earth and sky,having sometimes the sea of Tanais within sight on our righthand, and sometimes we saw the sepulchres in which the Comaniansused to bury their dead, at the distance of a league or two fromthe line of our journey. So long as we travelled in the desert,matters were tolerably well with us, but I cannot sufficientlyexpress the irksome and tedious plagues and troubles we had toencounter in the dwellings of the Tartars; for our guide insistedupon us making presents to every one of the Tartar captains,which we were utterly unable to afford, and we were eight personsin all, continually using our provisions, as the three Tartarswho accompanied us insisted that we should feed them; and theflesh which had been given us was by no means sufficient, and wecould not get any to buy. While we sat under the shadow of ourcarts to shelter us from the extreme heat of the sun, they wouldintrude into our company, and even tread upon us, that they mightsee what we had; and when they had to ease nature, would hardlywithdraw a few yards distance, shamelessly talking to us thewhole lime. What distressed me most of all, was when I wished toaddress them upon religious subjects, my foolish interpreter usedto say, "You shall not make me a preacher, and I neither will norcan rehearse these words." Nay, after I began to acquire somelittle knowledge of their language, I found, when I spoke onething, he would say quite differently, whatever chanced to comeuppermost in his senseless mind. Thus, seeing the danger I mightincur in speaking by so faithless an interpreter, I resolvedrather to be silent.

We thus journeyed on from station to station, till at length afew days before the festival of Mary Magdalen, 22d July, wearrived on the banks of the mighty river Tanais or Don, whichdivides Europe from Asia. At this place Baatu and Sartach hadestablished a station of Russians on the eastern bank of theriver, on purpose to transport merchants and messengers across.They ferried us over in the first place, and then our carts; andtheir boats were so small that they were obliged to use two boatstied together for one cart, putting a wheel into each. In thisplace our guides acted most foolishly; for believing that theRussians would provide us with horses and oxen, they sent backthose we had from the western side of the river, to theirmasters. But when relays were demanded from the Russians, theyalleged that they had a privilege from Baatu, exempting them fromall services except those belonging to the ferry, and for whichthey were even accustomed to receive considerable rewards fromsuch merchants as passed that way. We were, therefore,constrained to remain three days in this place. The first daythey gave us a large fresh fish[1]. The second day the magistrateof the village gathered from every house for us, and presented uswith rye-bread and some flesh. And the third day they gave usdried fish, of which they have great abundance.

[1] In the Latin this fish is named Barbatus, whichboth Hakluyt and Harris have translated Turbot, a fish neverfound in rivers. It was more probably a Barbel, in Latin calledBarbus; or it might be of the Sturgeon tribe, which likewise hasbeard-like appendages, and is found in the Don.--E.

The river Tanais, at this place, is as broad as the Seine atParis; and before arriving on its banks, we had passed manygoodly waters full of fish: but the rude Tartars know not now tocatch them, neither do they hold fish in any estimation, unlesslarge enough to feed a company. This river is the eastern limitof Russia, and arises from certain marshes which extend to thenorthern ocean; and it discharges itself in the south, into alarge sea of 700 miles extent, before falling into the Euxine;and all the rivers we had passed ran with a full stream in thesame direction. Beyond this place the Tartars advance no fartherto the north, and they were now, about the first of August,beginning to return into the south; and they have another villagesomewhat lower down the river, where passengers are ferried overin winter. At this time the people were reaping their rye. Wheatdoes not succeed in their soil, but they have abundance ofmillet. The Russian women attire their heads like those in ourcountry; and they ornament their gowns with furs of differentkinds, from about the knees downwards. The men wear a dress likethe Germans, having high crowned conical hats made of felt, likesugar loaves, with sharp points.

At length, after representing that our journey was intendedfor the common benefit of all Christians, they provided us withoxen and men to proceed upon our journey; but as we got nohorses, we were ourselves under the necessity of travelling onfoot. In this manner we journied for three days, without meetingany people; and when both our oxen and ourselves were weary andfaint with fatigue, two horses came running towards us, to ourgreat joy: Our guide and interpreter mounted upon these, and setout to see if they could fall in with any inhabitants. At length,on the fourth day, having found some people, we rejoiced likeseafaring men, who had escaped from a tempest into a safeharbour. Then getting fresh horses and oxen, we passed on fromstation to station, till we at length reached the habitation ofduke Sartach on the second of the kalends of August[2].

[2] This, according to the Roman method of reckoning,ought to be the last day of July. Yet Rubruquis had previouslymentioned the 1st of August a considerable timebefore.--E.

SECTION XVI.

Of the Dominions and Subjects of Sartach.

The region beyond the Tanais is very beautiful, especiallytowards the north, where there are fine rivers and extensiveforests. In these dwell two different nations. One of these,named the Moxel, are ignorant pagans, without any laws, who dwellin cottages among the woods, and have no cities. Their lord, andthe greater part of the nation were carried to the confines ofGermany by the Tartars, and were there slain by the Germans, whoare held in great estimation by the nations who are subject tothe Tartars, as they hope, through their means, to be freed fromthe Tartar yoke. When a merchant comes among these people, thefirst person with whom he stops is obliged to provide him withall necessaries during his stay in the district; and they are solittle jealous of their wives, that husbands pay little regard totheir infidelity, unless directly under their eyes. These peoplehave abundance of swine, honey, and wax, precious furs, andfalcons. Beyond these dwell the Merdas[1] or Merdui, who areSaracens or Mahometans. Beyond them is the Etilia or Volga, thelargest river I ever beheld, which comes out of the north, fromthe country of the Greater Bulgaria and runs southwards, into avast lake of four months journey in circuit, of which I shallspeak afterwards. In the northern region, by which we travelled,the Tanais and Volga are not above ten days journey asunder, buttowards the south they are at a much farther distance; the Tanaisfalling into the Euxine, and the Volga into the before mentionedsea or lake, which likewise receives many rivers from Persia. Inthe course of our journey, we left to the south certain greatmountains, on whose sides, towards the desert, dwell the Cergisand the Alani or Acas, who are Christians, and still carry on warwith the Tartars. Beyond these, near the sea or lake of Etilia,or the Caspian, are certain Mahometans named Lesgis, who aresubjected to the Tartars. Beyond these again are theIrongates, which were constructed by Alexander, to excludethe barbarians from Persia, of which I shall speak hereafter, asI passed that way in my return. In the country through which wetravelled between these great rivers, the Comanians dwelt beforeit was occupied by the Tarters.

[1] In the English of Hakluyt and Harris, thesepeople are called Merdas and Mardui.--E.

SECTION XVII.

Of the Magnificence of the Court of Sartach.

WE found Sartach encamped within three days journey of theriver Volga or Etilia, and his court or horda appeared to us verylarge and magnificent; as he had six wives, and his eldest sonthree, and each of these ladies had a great house, like thosealready described, besides that each had several smaller houses,and 200 of the chest-carts already mentioned. Our guide wentimmediately to a certain Nestorian named Coiat, who has greatinfluence at the court of Sartach; and this man carried us in theevening a considerable distance, to an officer called, in theTartar language, the Lords Gate, to whom belongs the duty ofreceiving messengers or ambassadors. Our guide inquired what wehad ready to present to this person, and seemed much offendedwhen he found we had nothing to offer. When we came into hispresence, he sat majestically, having music and dancing performedbefore him. I then spoke to him the words formerly mentioned,giving an account of the cause of our mission, and requestingthat he would bring us and our letters into the presence of hislord. I excused myself also, that as I was a monk, neithergiving, receiving, or using any gold, silver, or other costlythings, except our books, and the vestments in which we servedGod, that I could bring no present to him or his lord; and havingabandoned my own goods, I could not transport such things forother men. He courteously answered, that being a monk, I actedwell in observing my vow: and that he stood in no need of any ofour things, but on the contrary, was ready to give us what wemight need. He then caused us to sit down and drink of his milk,and afterwards desired that we should recite a benediction forhim, which we did. He inquired who was the greatest sovereignamong the Francs? To which I answered the emperor, if he couldenjoy his dominions in peace. "Not so, said he, but the king ofFrance." For he had heard of your majesty from the Lord Baldwinof Hainault. I found also at this court, one of the KnightTemplars, who had been at Cyprus, and had made a report of allthat he had seen there concerning your majesty. We then returnedto our lodgings, whence we sent a flaggon of our Muscadel wine,which had kept well during the journey, and a box of our biscuitto this officer, who received the present very graciously, andretained our servants all night in his dwelling.

In the morning he ordered us to come to court, and to bringthe kings letters, and our books and vestments along with us, ashis lord desired to see these things. This we did accordingly,lading one cart with our books and vestments, and another withwine, biscuit, and fruits. Then he caused all our books andvestments to be spread out, and asked if we meant to bestow allthese things upon his lord. A multitude of Tartars, Christians,and Mahometans were around us, on horseback, at this time, and Iwas sore grieved and afraid at this question; but dissembling aswell as I could, I said, "That we humbly requested his lord andmaster to accept our bread, wine, and fruits, not as a present,for it was too mean, but as a benevolence, lest we should appearto come empty handed. That his lord would see the letters of theking my master, which would explain the reason of our journey;after which we, and all we had, would remain at his command: Butthat our vestments were holy, and were unlawful to be touched orused by any except priests." We were then commanded to arrayourselves in our sacred vestments, that we might appear in thembefore his lord. Then putting on our most precious ornaments, Itook a rich cushion in my arms, together with the bible I hadfrom your majesty, and the beautiful psalter, ornamented withfine paintings, which the queen bestowed upon me. My companioncarried the missal and a crucifix; and the clerk, clothed in hissurplice, carried a censer in his hand. In this order wepresented ourselves, and the felt hanging before the lords doorbeing withdrawn, we appeared, in his presence. Then the clerk andinterpreter were ordered to make three genuflexions, from whichhumiliation we were exempted; and they admonished us to beexceedingly careful, in going in and out of the lords dwelling,not to touch the threshold of his door, and we were desired tosing a benediction or prayer for their lord; and we accordinglyentered in singing the salve regina.

Immediately within the door there stood a bench planted withcosmos and drinking cups. All Sartachs wives were assembled inthe house; and the Moals, or rich Tartars, pressing in along withus, incommoded us exceedingly. Then Coiat carried the censer withincense to Sartach, who took it in his hand, examining itnarrowly. He next carried him the psalter, which he and the wifewho sat next him minutely inspected. After which the bible wascarried to him, on which he asked if it contained our Gospel? Towhich I answered, that it contained that, and all our other HolyScriptures. I next delivered to him your majestys letter, withits translation into the Arabian and Syriac languages, which Ihad procured to be done at Acon[1]; and there happened to bepresent certain Armenian priests, who were skilful in the Turkishand Arabian languages, and likewise the before mentioned templarhad knowledge of both these and the Syriac. We then went out ofthe house and put off our vestments, and we were followed byCoiat, accompanied by certain scribes, by whom our letters wereinterpreted; and when Sartach had heard these read, he graciouslyaccepted our bread, wine, and fruits, and permitted us to carryour books and vestments to our own lodgings. All this happened onthe festival of St Peter ad Vincula.

[1] Now called St Jean d'Acre.--E.

SECTION XVIII.

They are ordered to proceed to Baatu, the Father ofSartach.

Next morning early a certain priest, who was the brother ofCoiat, came to our lodging, and desired to have our box of chrismto carry, as he said, to Sartach. About evening Coat sent for us,and said that the king our master had written acceptably to hislord and master Sartach; but there were certain difficultmatters, respecting which he did not dare to determine withoutthe orders and advice of his father, and that it was, therefore,necessary that we should go to his father, leaving the two cartsbehind us in which we brought the books and vestments, becausehis lord was desirous to examine these things more carefully.Suspecting the evil that might arise from this man'scovetousness, I immediately said that we would not only leavethese carts, but the other two also under his custody. You shallnot, said he, leave these two carts behind, but as for the othertwo, we will satisfy your desire. But I insisted upon leavingthem all. He then desired to know whether we intended to remainin the country? To which I answered, that if he had thoroughlyunderstood the letters of my lord and master, he would have seenthat we were so inclined. And he then exhorted us to demeanourselves with patience, and humility; after which we parted forthat evening.

Next day Coiat sent a Nestorian priest for the carts, to whomwe caused all the four to be delivered. After whom the brother ofCoiat came to our lodging, and took possession of all the booksand vestments which we had shewn the day before at the court;although we remonstrated against this procedure, saying thatCoiat had ordered us to carry those things along with us, that wemight appear in them before Baatu; but he took them from us byviolence, saying, "you brought all these things to Sartach, andwould you carry them to Baatu?" And when I would have reasonedwith him against this conduct, he desired me not to be tootalkative, but to go my way. There was no remedy but patience, aswe could not have access to Sartach, and we could not expect toprocure justice from any other person. I was even afraid toemploy our interpreter on this occasion, lest he might haverepresented matters in a quite different sense from what I shoulddirect, as he seemed much inclined for us to give away all wehad. My only comfort was, that I had secretly removed the bibleand some other books, on which I set a great store, when I firstdiscovered their covetous intentions; but I did not venture toabstract the psalter, because it was so particularlydistinguished by its beautifully gilded illuminations. When theperson came who was appointed to be our guide to the court ofBaatu, I represented to him the necessity of leaving our othercarts behind, as we were to travel post; and on this beingreported to Coiat, he consented to take charge of these, and ofour servant. Before leaving the residence of Sartach, Coiat andother scribes desired that we should by no means represent theirlord to Baatu as a Christian, but as a Moal: for though theybelieve some things concerning Christ, they are very unwilling tobe called Christians, which they consider as a nationalappellation; and they look upon their own name of Moal as worthyto be exalted above all others. Neither do they allow themselvesto be called Tartars: as that is the name of another nation,according to the information I received at this place. Leavingthe station of Sartach, we travelled directly eastwards for threedays, on the last of which we came to the Etilia or Volga, and Iwondered much from what regions of the north such mighty streamsshould descend.

SECTION XIX.

Of the Reverence shewn by Sartach, Mangu-khan, andKen-chan, to the Christians.

At the time when the Francs took Antioch from the Saracens[1],a prince named Con-can, or Khen-khan, held dominion over all thenorthern regions of Tartary. Con is a proper name, and can orkhan is a title of dignity, signifying a diviner or soothsayer,and is applied to all princes in these countries, because thegovernment of the people belongs to them through divination. Tothis prince the Turks of Antioch sent for assistance against theFrancs, as the whole nation of the Turks came originally from theregions of Tartary. Con-khan was of the nation called Kara-Catay,or the black Catay; which is used to distinguish them from theother nation of Catayans, who inhabit to the eastwards upon theocean, of whom I shall speak afterwards. These Kara-Catayansdwelt upon certain high mountains through which I travelled; andin a certain plain country within these mountains, there dwelt aNestorian shepherd, who was supreme governor over the peoplecalled Yayman or Nayman, who were Christians of the Nestoriansect. After the death of Con-khan, this Nestorian prince exaltedhimself to the kingdom, and was called King John, or PresterJohn; of whom ten times more is reported than is true, accordingto the usual custom of the Nestorians, for they are apt to raisegreat stories on no foundations. Thus they gave out, that Sartachwas a Christian, and they propagated similar stories ofMangu-khan, and even of Con-khan, merely because these princesshewed great respect to the Christians. The story of King Johnhad no better foundation; for when I travelled through histerritories, no one there knew any thing at all about him, exceptonly a few Nestorians. In these regions likewise dwelt Con-khan,formerly mentioned, at whose court Friar Andrew once was; and Ipassed through that region in my return. This John had a brother,a powerful prince and a shepherd like himself, who was namedVut-khan, or Unc-khan, who dwelt beyond the mountains ofKara-Kitay, at the distance of three weeks journey from theresidence of John. This Vut-khan was lord of a small villagenamed Caracarum, and his subjects were called Crit or Merkit,being Christians of the Nestorian sect. But Vut-khan abandonedthe Christian worship and followed idolatry, retaining priests tohis idols, who are all sorcerers and worshippers of thedevils.

[1] About the year 1097.

Ten or fifteen days journey beyond the territory of Vut-khan,lay the pastures of the Moal, a poor nation without laws orgovernment, except that they were much given to sorcery anddivinations; and near them was another poor nation calledTartars. On the death of John, the khan of the Cara- Kitayans,without male issue, his brother Vut succeeded to all his greatriches, and got himself to be proclaimed khan. The flocks andherds of this Vut-khan pastured to the borders of the Moal, amongwhom was one Zingis, a blacksmith, who used to steal as manycattle as he possibly could from the flock of Vut-Khan. At lengththe herds complained to their lord of the reiterated robberieswhich were committed by Zingis, and Vut-khan went with an army toseize him. But Zingis fled and hid himself among the Tartars, andthe troops of Vut-khan returned to their own country, afterhaving made considerable spoil both from the Moal and theTartars. Then Zingis remonstrated with the Moal and Tartars, upontheir want of a supreme ruler to defend them from the oppressionsof their neighbours, and they were induced by his suggestions toappoint him to be their khan or ruler. Immediately after hiselevation, Zingis gathered an army secretly together, and made asudden invasion of the territories belonging to Vut, whom hedefeated in battle, and forced to fly for refuge into Katay.During this invasion, one of the daughters of Vut was madeprisoner, whom Zingis gave in marriage to one of his sons, and towhom she bore Mangu-khan, the presently reigning great khan ofthe Moal and Tartars. In all his subsequent wars, Zingis usedcontinually to send the Tartars before him in the van of hisarmy: by which means their name came to be spread abroad in theworld, as, wherever they made their appearance, the astonishedpeople were in use to run away, crying out, the Tartars! theTartars! In consequence of almost continual war, this nation ofthe Tartars is now almost utterly extirpated, yet the nameremains; although the Moals use every effort to abolish that nameand to exalt their own. The country where these Tartars formerlyinhabited, and where the court of Zingis still remains, is nowcalled Mancherule; and as this was the centre of all theirconquests, they still esteem it as their royal residence, andthere the great khan is for the most part elected.

SECTION XX.

Of the Russians, Hungarians, Alanians, and of theCaspian.

I know not whether Sartach really believes in Christ, but amcertain that he refuses to be called a Christian, and I ratherthink that he scoffs at Christianity. His residence lies in theway through which the Russians, Walachians, Bulgarians of thelesser Bulgaria, the Soldaians, or Christians of Casaria, theKerkis, Alanians, and other Christians have to pass in their waywith gifts or tribute to the court of his father Baatu-khan; andby this means Sartach is more connected with the Christians thanany of the rest, yet when the Saracens or Mahometans bring theirgifts, they are sooner dispatched. Sartach has always about himsome Nestorian priests, who count their beads and sing theirdevotions.

There is another commander under Baatu-khan, called Berta orBerca, who pastures his flocks towards the Iron-gate, or Derbent,through which lies the passage of all the Saracens or Mahometanswho come from Persia and Turkey, to pay their gifts and tributesto Baatu, and who make presents to Berta in their way. Thisperson professes himself to be of the Mahometan faith, and willnot permit swines flesh to be eaten in his dominions. But itappearing to Baatu, that his affairs suffered detriment by thisintercourse with the Mahometans, we learnt on our return, that hehad commanded Berta to remove from the Iron-gate to the east sideof the Volga.

For the space of four days which we spent in the court ofSartach, we had no victuals allowed us, except once a littlecosmos; and during our journey to the residence of his fatherBaatu, we travelled in great fear, on account of certain Russian,Hungarian, and Alanian servants of the Tartars, who oftenassemble secretly in the night, in troops of twenty or thirtytogether, and being armed with bows and arrows, murder and robwhoever they meet with, hiding themselves during the day. Thesem*n are always on horseback, and when their horses tire, theysteal others from the ordinary pastures of the Tartars, and eachman has generally one or two spare horses to serve as food incase of need. Our guide therefore was in great fear lest we mightfall in with some of these stragglers. Besides this danger, wemust have perished during this journey, if we had not fortunatelycarried some of our biscuit along with us. We at length reachedthe great river Etilia or Volga, which is four times the size ofthe Seine, and of great depth. This river rises in the north ofGreater Bulgaria, and discharges itself into the Hircanian Sea,called the Caspian by Isidore, having the Caspian mountains andthe land of Persia on the south, the mountains of Musihet, or ofthe Assassins on the east, which join the Caspian mountains, andon the north is the great desert now occupied by the Tartars,where formerly there dwelt certain people called Canglae, orCangitae, and on that side it receives the Etilia, or Volga,which overflows in summer like the Nile in Egypt. On the westside of this sea are the mountains of the Alani and Lesgis, theIron-gate or Derbent, and the mountains of Georgia. This sea,therefore, is environed on three sides by mountains, but by plainground on the north. Friar Andrew, in his journey, travelledalong its south and east sides; and I passed its north side bothin going and returning between Baatu and Mangu-khan, and alongits western side in my way from Baatu into Syria. One may travelentirely round it in four months; and it is by no means true, asreported by Isidore, that it is a bay of the ocean, with which itnowhere joins, but is environed on all sides by the land.

At the region from the west shore of the Caspian, where theIron-gate of Alexander is situated, now called Derbent, and fromthe mountains of the Alani, and along the Palus Moeotis, or seaof Azoph, into which the Tanais falls, to the northern ocean, wasanciently called Albania; in which Isidore says, that there weredogs of such strength and fierceness, as to fight with bulls, andeven to overcome lions, which I have been assured by severalpersons to be true; and even, that towards the northern ocean,they have dogs of such size and strength, that the inhabitantsmake them draw carts like oxen[1].

[1] It is astonishing how easily a small exaggerationconverts truth to fable. Here the ill-told story of the lightsledges of the Tshutki, drawn by dogs of a very ordinary size, isinnocently magnified into carts dragged by giganticmastiffs.--E.

SECTION XXI.

Of the Court of Baatu, and our Entertainment there.

On that part of the Volga where we arrived, they have latelybuilt a new village, in which there is a mixed population ofRussians and Tartars, established for the service of the ferry,that they may transport messengers going to and from the court ofBaatu, as he always remains on the east side of the Volga.Neither does he ever travel any farther north, in summer, than tothe place where we arrived on that river, and was even thendescending towards the south. From January till August, he andall the other Tartars ascend by the banks of rivers towards thecold regions of the north, and in August they begin again toreturn. From the place where we came to the Volga, is a journeyof five days northward to the first villages of the GreaterBulgaria, and I am astonished to think how the Mahometan religionshould have travelled thither; as from Derbent, on the extremeborders of Persia, it is thirty days journey to pass the desertand ascend along the Volga into Bulgaria, and in the whole trackthere are no towns, and only a few villages where the Volga fallsinto the Caspian; yet these Bulgarians[1] are the most bigotedlyattached to the religion of Mahomet, of any of the nations thathave been perverted to that diabolical superstition.

[1] The Greater Bulgaria of our author seems tocomprehend the provinces of Astracan and Casan inRussia.--E.

The court of Baatu having already gone towards the south, wepassed down the stream of the Volga in a bark from the beforementioned village, to where his court then was; and we wereastonished at the magnificent appearance of his encampment, ashis houses and tents were so numerous, as to appear like somelarge city, stretching out to a vast length; and there were greatnumbers of people ranging about the country, to three or fourleagues all around. Even as the children of Israel knew every oneon which side of the Tabernacle to pitch his tent, so everyTartar knows on to what side of the court of his prince he oughtto place his house, when he unlades it from his cart. The princescourt is called in their language Horda, which signifiesthe middle, because the chieftain or ruler always dwells in themidst of his people; only that no subject or inferior person mustplace his dwelling towards the south, as the court gates arealways open to that quarter. But they extend themselves to theright and left, according as they find it convenient. On ourarrival we were conducted to a Mahometan, who did not provide uswith any provisions; and we were brought next day to the court,where Baatu had caused a large tent to be erected, as his housewas two small to contain the multitude of men and women who wereassembled at this place. We were admonished by our guide, not tospeak until we should receive orders from Baatu to that purpose,and that then we should be brief in our discourse. Baatu asked ifyour majesty had sent us as ambassadors to him? I answered, thatyour majesty had formerly sent ambassadors to Ken-khan; and wouldnot have sent any on the present occasion, or any letters toSartach, had it not been that you had been advised they werebecome Christians; on which account only I had been sent incongratulation and not through any fear. We were then led intothe pavilion, being strictly charged not to touch any of the tentropes, which they consider as equivalent to the threshold of ahouse, which must not be touched. We entered the tent barefootedand with our heads uncovered, forming a strange spectacle intheir eyes; for though Friar John de Plano Carpini had been therebefore me, yet being a messenger from the Pope, he had changedhis habit that he might not be despised. We were brought forwardinto the middle of the tent, without being required to bow theknee, as is the case with other messengers. Baatu was seated upona long broad couch like a bed, all over gilt, and raised threesteps from the ground, having one of his ladies beside him. Themen of note were all assembled in the tent, and were seated aboutin a scattered manner, some on the right and some on the lefthand; and those places which were not filled up by Baatus wives,were occupied by some of the men. At the entrance of the tentthere stood a bench well furnished with cosmos, and with manysuperb cups of gold and silver, richly set with precious stones.Baatu surveyed us earnestly for some time, and we him; he was ofa fresh ruddy colour, and in my opinion had a strong resemblanceto the late Lord John de Beaumont.

After standing in the midst of the tent for so long as onemight have rehearsed the Miserere, during which anuniversal silence prevailed, we were commanded to speak, and ourguide directed us to bow our knees before we spoke. On this Ibowed one knee as to a man; but he desired me to kneel on bothknees, and being unwilling to contend about such ceremonies, Icomplied; and being again commanded to speak, I bethought me ofprayer to God on account of my posture, and began in thefollowing manner: "Sir, we beseech God, the giver of all good,who hath bestowed upon you these earthly benefits, that he wouldgrant you hereafter the blessings of Heaven, seeing that theformer are vain without the latter. Be it known to you therefore,of a certainty, that you cannot attain to the joys of heavenunless you become a Christian; for God hath said, whosoeverbelieveth and is baptized shall be saved, but he that believethnot shall be condemned." At this he modestly smiled, but theother Moals clapped their hands in derision; and my interpreter,who ought to have comforted me, was quite abashed. After silencewas restored, I proceeded thus: "Having heard that your son wasbecome a Christian, I came to him with letters from my master theking of the Francs, and your son sent me hither; for what reasonit behoves you to know." He then desired me to rise, and inquiredthe name of your majesty, and my name, and the names of mycompanion and interpreter, all of which he caused to be set downin writing. After which, he asked who it was that your majestymade war against, as he had heard that you had departed from yourown country with an army. To which I answered, that you warredagainst the Saracens, because they had violated the house of Godat Jerusalem. He then asked if your majesty had ever before sentambassadors to him. And I said never to him. He then desired usto be seated, and gave us to drink; and it is accounted a greatfavour when any one is admitted to drink cosmos in his house.While I sat looking down upon the ground, he desired me to lookup; either wishing to observe me more distinctly, or out of somesuperstitious fancy: for these people look upon it as a sign ofill-fortune, when any one sits in their presence holding down hishead in a melancholy posture, and more especially when he leanshis cheek or chin upon his hand.

We then departed from the tent of audience, and immediatelyafterwards our guide came and told us, that, as our king haddesired that we might remain in this country, Baatu could notconsent to this without the knowledge and authority ofMangu-khan; and it was necessary, therefore, that I should gowith the interpreter to Mangu, while my companion and the clerkshould return to the court of Sartach, and remain there till myreturn. On this the interpreter began to lament himself as a deadman; and my companion declared, that rather as separate from me,he would allow them to take off his head. I added, that I couldnot possibly go without my interpreter, and that we should needtwo servants, that we might be sure of one in case of the otherbeing sick. Upon this the guide returned into the presence andreported to Baatu what we had said, who now gave orders that thetwo priests and the interpreter should go forwards to Mangu, butthat the clerk must immediately return to Sartach; and with thisanswer the guide came to us. When I now endeavoured to plead forthe company of our clerk, he desired me to be silent; for asBaatu had already given the orders, they must be obeyed, and hedared not go again into the court. Goset, our clerk, still hadtwenty-six yperperas remaining of the alms we had formerlyreceived, ten of which he retained for himself and the servant,and gave us the remaining sixteen. We then sorrowfully parted,the clerk returning to the court of Sartach, while we remainedfollowing the court of Baatu. On Assumption eve, 14th August, ourclerk arrived at the court of Sartach, and the next day theNestorian priests were seen adorned in the vestments of whichthey had deprived us.

SECTION XXII.

The Journey to the Court of Mangu-khan.

From the audience we were conducted to the dwelling of aperson who was ordered to provide us in lodging, food, andhorses; but as we had no presents to give, he treated us withgreat neglect. We travelled along with Baatu, down the banks ofthe Volga for five weeks, and were often so much in want ofprovisions, that my companion was sometimes so extremely hungryas even to weep. For though there is always a fair or marketfollowing the court, it was so far from us, that we, who wereforced to travel on foot, were unable to reach it. At length,some Hungarians, who had for some time been looked upon aspriests, found out, and relieved our distresses. One of these wasable to sing with a loud voice, and being considered by hiscountrymen as a kind of priest, was employed at their funerals;the other had been decently instructed in the Latin grammar, sothat he understood whatever we spoke to him deliberately, but wasunable to make answer. These men were a great consolation to us,as they supplied us with flesh and cosmos. They requested somebooks from us, and it grieved me much that we could not comply,having only one bible and a breviary. But I made them bring someink and paper, and I copied out for them the Hours of the blessedVirgin, and the Office for the Dead. It happened one day that aComanian passing by saluted us in Latin, saying Salvetedomini. Surprized at this unusual salutation, I questionedhim how he had learnt it, and he told me he had been baptized inHungary by our priests, who had taught him. He said, likewise,that Baatu had inquired many things at him respecting us, andthat he had given him an account of the nature and rules of ourorder. I afterwards saw Baatu riding with his company, who werethe whole of his subjects that were householders or masters offamilies, and in my estimation they did not exceed 500men.[1]

[1] This, however, is only to be understood of whatmay be termed the pretorian or royal horde, in a time of profoundpeace, travelling in their usual and perpetual round in quest offorage; the almost boundless space of the desert must have beeninterspersed with numerous subordinate hordes, and though theusual guard of Baatu might not have exceeded 500 heads offamilies, the military force of his dominions, though subordinateto Mangu-khan, certainly exceeded 200,000 fightingmen.--E.

At length, about the Holyrood, 14th September, or festival ofthe exaltation of the Holy Cross, there came to us a certain richMoal, whose father was a millenary or captain of a thousandhorse, who informed us that he had been appointed to conduct us.He informed us that the journey would take us four months, andthat the cold was so extreme in winter, as even to tear asundertrees and stones with its force. "Advise well with yourselves,therefore," said he, "whether you be able to endure it, forotherwise I shall forsake you by the way." To this I answered,that I hoped we should be able, with the help of God, to endurehardships like other men; but as we were sent by his lord underhis charge, and did not go on any business of our own, he oughtnot to forsake us. He then said that all should be well, andhaving examined our garments, he directed us what we should leavebehind in the custody of our host, as not useful for the journey;and next day he sent each of us a furred gown, made of sheepskins, with the wool on, and breeches of the same, likewise shoesor footsocks made of felt, and boots of their fashion, and hoodsof skins. The second day after the holy cross day, 16thSeptember, we began our journey, attended by three guides, and werode continually eastwards during forty-six days, till the feastof All-Saints, 1st November. The whole of that region, and evenbeyond it, is inhabited by the people named Changle or Kangittae,who are descended from the Romans. Upon the north side we had thecountry of the Greater Bulgaria, and to the south the Caspiansea.

SECTION XXIII.

Of the River Jaic or Ural, and of sundry Regions andNations.

At the end of twelve days journey from the Etilia or Volga, wecame to a great river named the Jagag (Jaic or Ural); which,issuing from the land of Pascatir (of Zibier or of the Baschirs,now Siberia), falls into the Caspian. The language of theBaschirs and of the Hungarians is the same, and they are allshepherds, having no cities; and their land is bounded on thewest by the Greater Bulgaria; from which country eastwards, inthese northern parts, there are no cities whatsoever, so that theGreater Bulgaria is the last country which possesses towns andcities. From this country of Pascatir the Huns went, who wereafterwards called Hungarians. Isidore writes, that with swifthorses they passed the walls of Alexander, and the rocks ofCaucasus, which opposed the barbarians, and even exacted tributefrom Egypt, and laid waste the whole of Europe as far as France,being even more warlike in their day than the Tartars are now.With them the Blacians or Walachians, the Bulgarians, and theVandals united. These Bulgarians came from the Greater Bulgaria,The people named Ilac or Vlac, who inhabit beyond the Danube fromConstantinople, not far from Pascatir, are the same people, beingproperly named Blac or Blacians, but as the Tartars cannotpronounce the letter B, they are called Ilac, Vlac, orWallachians. From them, likewise, the inhabitants of the land ofthe Assani are descended, both having the same name in theRussian, Polish, and Bohemian languages. The Sclavonians and theVandals speak the same language; and all of these joinedthemselves formerly with the Huns, as they now do with theTartars. All this that I have written concerning the land ofPascatir, I was informed by certain friars predicants, who hadtravelled there before the irruption of the Tartars; and as theyhad been subdued by their neighbours the Bulgarians, who wereMahometans, many of them adopted that faith. Other mattersrespecting these people may be known from various chronicles. Butit is obvious, that those provinces beyond Constantinople, whichare now called Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Sclavonia [1], formerlybelonged to the Greek empire; and Hungary was formerly namedPannonia.

[1] Probably intended for what is now calledServia--E.

We continued riding through the land of the Changles orKangittae, as before mentioned, from Holy Cross-day tillAll-Saints, travelling every day, as well as I could guess, aboutas far as from Paris to Orleans, and sometimes farther [2],according as we happened to be provided with relays; forsometimes we would change horses two or three times a-day, andthen we travelled quicker; while sometimes we had to travel twoor three days without finding any inhabitants to supply us, andthen we were forced to travel more deliberately. Out of thirty orforty horses, we were always sure to have the worst, beingstrangers, as every one took their choice before it came to ourturn. They always, however, provided me with a strong horse,because I was corpulent and heavy; but whether his pace happenedto be hard or gentle, was all one to them, and I dared not tomake any complaints. Our horses often tired before we could fallin with any of the inhabitants, and we were then obliged to beatand whip them up, being obliged to lay our garments upon sparehorses, and sometimes two of us obliged to ride on one horse.

[2] This may be taken at a medium of thirty miles aday which, in forty-six days, would amount to 1380 miles; nodoubt a very fatiguing journey for a corpulent heavy man as hedescribes himself--E.

SECTION XXIV.

Of the Hunger, Thirst, and other Miseries weendured.

There was no end of hunger and thirst, and cold and weariness.In the morning they gave us something to drink, or some boiledmillet; but afterwards we had nothing to eat until the evening,when they bestowed some flesh upon us, being generally theshoulder and breast of a ram, and every one was allowed aproportion of the broth to drink; and we considered ourselvesfortunate when we had enough of broth, as it was exceedinglyrefreshing, pleasant, and nutritive. Sometimes we wereconstrained to eat our meat half boiled, or even almost raw, forwant of fuel, especially when we were benighted and obliged topass the night in the fields, because we could not convenientlygather horse or cow-dung to make a fire, and we seldom found anyother fuel, except a few thorns here and there, and a few rarewoods on the banks of some rivers. Every Saturday I remainedfasting until night, and was then constrained, to my great grief,to eat flesh, as I could not procure any other food in thedesert. In the beginning of our journey our guide disdained usexceedingly, and seemed quite indignant at being obliged to takecharge of such base fellows as he seemed to esteem us; but heafterwards behaved better, and often took us purposely to thecourts of rich Moals, who requested us to pray for them; and if Ihad been so fortunate as to have a good interpreter, I might havebeen able to do some good among these ignorant people.

Zingis, the first great khan or emperor of the Tartars, leftfour sons, from whom descended many grandsons, who are dailymultiplying and dispersing over that immense waste desert, whichis boundless like the ocean. These Moals whom we visited andprayed for, were astonished when we refused their proffered giftsof gold and silver and fine garments. They often enquired whetherthe great Pope was actually 500 years old, as they had heard fromreport. They likewise enquired into the nature and productions ofour country, especially whether we had abundance of cattle,sheep, and horses. When we spoke to them about the ocean, theycould form no adequate conception of its immense expanse, withoutbanks or limits.

On the feast of All-Saints, 1st November, as the people hadnow descended very much to the southwards, we now discontinuedour eastern route, and journied directly south for eight days,along certain high mountains. In the desert we saw many wildasses resembling mules, called colan or coulan by the Tartars,which our guide and his companions often chased with greateagerness, but without success, owing to the great swiftness ofthese animals. Upon the seventh day of our southern route, we sawdirectly before us some exceedingly high mountains, and weentered upon a fine cultivated plain, which was irrigated like agarden. Next day, 7th November, we arrived at a town belonging tothe Mahometans named Kenchat, the governor of which came out tomeet our guide with ale and other refreshments; for it is thecustom of all the subjected cities, to welcome the messengers ofBaatu and Mangu with meat and drink on their arrival. At thisseason, the ice was fully bearing, and we found frost in thedesert before the feast of St Michael, 29th September. I inquiredthe name of the province, but being in a strange land they couldnot inform me, and could only tell me the name of this city,which is very small. Into this district a large river descendsfrom the mountains, which the inhabitants lead off to water orirrigate the whole region; so that this river does not dischargeitself into any sea, but after forming many pools or marshes, isabsorbed into the earth. In this region we saw vines growing, anddrank twice of their wines.

SECTION XXV

Of the Execution of Ban, and concerning the residence ofcertain Germans.

The next day we came to another village nearer to themountains, which, I understood, were called Caucasus, and thatthey reached from the eastern to the western sea, even passingthe Caspian to the west. I likewise inquired concerning the townof Talas, in which, according to Friar Andrew [1], there werecertain Germans in the service of one Buri and I hadformerly made inquiries concerning them at the courts of Sartachand Baatu[2]. But I could only learn, that their master,Ban, had been put to death on the following occasion. ThisBan happened to have his appointed residence in inferiorpastures, and one day when drunk, he said to his people, thatbeing of the race of Zingis as well as Baatu, whose brother ornephew he was, he thought himself entitled to feed his flocks onthe fine plains of the Volga as freely as Baatu himself. Thesespeeches were reported to Baatu, who immediately wrote to theservants of Ban to bring their lord bound before him. Then Baatudemanded whether he had spoken the words, which were reported,and Ban acknowledged them, but pled that he was drunk at thetime, and it is usual among the Tartars to forgive the words andactions of drunk men. But Baatu reproached him for daring to usehis name in his cups, and ordered his head to be immediatelystruck off.

[1] The person here alluded to was a monk namedAndrew Luciumel, who had been sent ambassador, by the pope, tothe emperor of the Mongals, in 1247 or 1248, with the same viewsas in the missions of Carpini and Asceline at the same period;but of his journey we have no account remaining.--E.

[2] It is exceedingly difficult, or ratherimpossible, to trace the steps of the travels of Rubruquis, forwant of latitudes, longitudes, and distances, and names ofplaces. After passing the Volga and Ural or Jaik, he seems tohave travelled east in the country of the Kirguses, somewhereabout the latitude of 50°. N. to between the longitudes of65°. and 70°. E. then to have struck to the south acrossthe Kisik-tag into Western Turkestan, in which the cultivatedvale may have been on the Tshui or the Talasrivers.--E.

On my arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, I learnt, that thebefore mentioned Germans had been removed from the jurisdictionof Baatu to a place named Bolac, a months journey to the east ofTalus, where they were employed to dig for gold, and to fabricatearms. In the before mentioned town we learnt that Talas was nearthe mountains behind us, at the distance of six days journey.From the before mentioned village near the mountains[3], we wentdirectly eastwards, coasting these mountains; and from that timewe travelled among the immediate subjects of Mangu-khan, who inall places sang and danced in honour of our guide, because he wasthe messenger of Baatu; it being the custom for the subjects ofMangu-khan to receive the messengers of Baatu in this manner, andreciprocally, the subjects of Baatu shew like honour to themessengers of Mnngu; yet the subjects of Baatu are moreindependently spirited, and do not evince so much courtesy. A fewdays afterwards, we entered upon the mountains where theCara-Catayans used to dwell, where we found a large river whichwe had to pass in boats. We afterwards came to a cultivatedvalley, in which were the ruins of a castle, which had beensurrounded by walls of mud or earth. After this we came to alarge village called Equius, inhabited by Mahometans, who spokePersian, although so far removed from Persia. On the dayfollowing, having passed those Alps which descend from the highmountains towards the south, we entered a most beautiful plain,having high mountains upon our right hand, and a sea or lake onour left, which is fifteen days journey in circumference[4]. Thisplain is watered or irrigated at will, by means of streamsdescending from these mountains, all of which fall into thebefore mentioned lake. In the subsequent summer we returned bythe north side of this lake, where likewise there are greatmountains[5]. In this plain there used to be many towns; but mostof these have been destroyed by the Tartars, that the excellentlands around them might be converted into pastures for theircattle. We still found one large town named Cailac, in which wasa market frequented by many merchants; and we remained fifteendays at this place, waiting for one of Baatu's scribes, who wasto assist our guide in the management of certain affairs at thecourt of Mangu. This country used to be called Organum[6], andthe people Organa, as I was told, because the people wereexcellent performers on the organ[7] or lute; and they had adistinct language and peculiar manner of writing. It was nowentirely inhabited by the Contomanni, whose language and writingare used by the Nestorians of these parts. I here first sawidolaters, of whom there are many sects in the east.

[3] Probably near the north side of the Arguin orAlak mountains.--E.

[4] This position of Rubruquis is sufficientlydistinct: Having ferried over the river Tshui, and crossed theJimbai mountains, the route now lay between the Alak mountain onhis right, or to the south, and the lake of Balkash or PalkatiNor, to the left or north.--E.

[5] The Kisik-tag, which he had before passed indescending into Western Turkestan.--E.

[6] This absurd derivation of the name of the countryand people, is unworthy of credit. Organum was probably thecountry called Irgonekan or Irganakon by Abulgari; and the wordsignifies a valley surrounded by steep mountains, exactlycorrespondent with the description in thetext.--Forst.

[7] The Contomanni or Kontomanians, were probably aMongal tribe, originally inhabiting the banks of the Konta orKhonda, who had afterwards settled on the banks of the river Iliand lake of Balkash. --Forst.

SECTION XXVI.

How the Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed withIdolaters.

In the first place arc the Jugurs, whose country borders uponthe land of Organum among the mountains towards the east, and inall their towns Nestorians and Mahometans are mixed among thenatives. And they are diffused likewise in all the towns of theMahometans towards Persia. In the city of Cailac, or Cealac,there are three idol temples, two of which I went into to observetheir folly. In one of these I found a person having a crossmarked with ink upon his hand, whence I supposed him a Christian,and to all my questions he answered like a Christian. I asked himwherefore he had not the cross and image of Christ, and heanswered, that it was not their custom; wherefore I concluded thepeople were actually Christians, but omitted these things forwant of instruction. Behind a certain chest, which served for analtar, and on which they placed candles and oblations, I saw animage with wings like that of St Michael; and other imagesholding out their fingers, as if blessing the spectators. Thatevening I could make no farther discovery; for though theSaracens invite one into their temples, they will not speak oftheir religion[1]; insomuch, that when I inquired at them abouttheir ceremonies, they were much offended.

[1] The Saracens are here much abused by the mistakeof our traveller; as, however erroneous their religious opinions,they worship the true God only, and abhor even the leastsemblance of idolatry.--E.

Next day being the Kalends, 1st December, was the passover ofthe Saracens, and I changed my lodging to the neighbourhood ofanother temple of idols; for the people of this place shewhospitality to all messengers, every one according to hisabilities. In this other temple I found the priests of the idols,who open and adorn the temples at the Kalends, and the peoplemake offerings of bread and fruits. I shall first describe thegeneral rites of idolatry, and then those of the Jugurs, who area kind of sect different from the others. They all worshiptowards the north, with joined hands, prostrating themselves upontheir knees to the earth, and resting their foreheads on theirhands. For which reason the Nestorians never join their hands inprayer, but spread their hands on their breasts. Their templesare built from east to west, having a chamber or vestry for thepriests on the north; or if the building is square, they have asimilar chamber on the middle of the north side in place of achoir, and before it is placed a long broad chest like a table,behind which, facing the south, stands the principal idol. Thatwhich I saw at Caracarum was as large as the picture of StChristopher. A Nestorian priest, who came from Catay, told methere was an idol in that country so large, that it could be seenat the distance of two days journey[2]. Other idols are placedaround the principal one, and all are beautifully gilt; All thegates of their temples open to the south, contrary to the customsof the Mahometans; and they have large bells, as is the case withus, wherefore the oriental Christians will not use them, thoughthey are customary among the Russians and the Greeks inCasaria.

[2] The Nestorian probably said an idol-house;meaning one of the high towers usually erected near Chinesetemples: and even this must have stood upon a very elevatedsituation, in an extensive plain, to be seen from so great adistance, perhaps of sixty miles.--E.

SECTION XXVII.

Of their Temples and Idols, and the Worship of theirGods.

All their priests shave their heads and beards, and areclothed in yellow; and they live in companies of one or twohundred together, observing strict celibacy. On holy days, theysit in the temple on long benches, placed directly opposite eachother, holding books in their hands, which they sometimes lay onthe benches; and all the time they remain in the temples, theyhave their heads bare, and they read to themselves, keepingprofound silence: Insomuch, that when I went into the temple, andendeavoured all I could to provoke them to speak, I could notsucceed. Wherever they go, they carry a string with an hundred ortwo hundred nut-shells, like our rosaries, and they arecontinually uttering the words, Ou mam Hactani, which wasexplained to me as signifying, O God! thou knowest. And asoften as they pronounce these words in remembrance of God, theyexpect a proportional reward[1]. Round the temple, there isalways a handsome court, environed by a high wall, on the southside of which is a large portal, in which they sit to confertogether; and over this portal they erect a long pole, rising ifpossible above the whole city, that every one may know where tofind the temple. These things are common to all theidolaters.

[1] The following more complete account of thissuperstition, has been deemed worthy of insertion.

On going to visit this temple, I found the priests sittingunder the outer portal; and those whom I saw, appeared, by theirshaven beards, like French friars. They wore conical caps ofpaper on their heads; and all the priests of the Jugurs wear thiscap continually, and yellow strait tunics fastened down themiddle like those in France; besides which, they wear a cloak ontheir left shoulder, flowing loosely before and behind, butleaving the right arm free, somewhat like a deacon carrying thepix in Lent. Their mode of writing is adopted by the Tartars.They begin to write at the top of the page, and extend theirlines downwards, reading and writing from left to right. Theymake great use of written papers in their magical incantations,and their temples are hung round with short written sentences.The letters sent by Mangu-khan to your majesty, are written inthese characters, and in the language of the Moal. These peopleburn their dead in the manner of the ancients, and deposit theashes on the top of certain pyramids. After sitting for some timebeside these priests, and having entered their temple to look attheir many images, some large and others small, I asked what wastheir belief concerning God? To which they answered, that theybelieved in one God only. On asking them whether he was a spiritor of a corporeal nature, they said he was a spirit. Being askedif God had ever assumed the human mature, they answered never.Since, then, said I, you believe God to be a spirit, wherefore doyow make so many images of him; and as you believe that he nevertook upon him the human form, wherefore do you represent himunder the image of a man, rather than of any other creature? Tothis they answered, we do not make images of God; but when any ofour rich men die, or their wives or children, or dear friends,they cause images to be made of the deceased, which are placed inthe temple, which we venerate in respect to their memory. Then,said I, you do these things in flattery of men: but they insistedit was only in remembrance. They then asked me, as if inderision, where is God? To this I answered by another question,where is your soul? and they said, in our bodies. Then, said I,is it not in every part of your body, ruling over the whole, yetcannot be seen. Even in the same manner God is everywhere, rulingall things, yet is invisible, being intelligence and wisdom. Iwould willingly have proceeded in this conference, but myinterpreter became weary and unable to express my meaning, sothat I was obliged to desist.

The Moals and Tartars follow the same religion, in so far thatthey believe in one only God; but they make images in felt oftheir departed friends, which they cover with fine costlygarments. These they carry about with them in one or twoappropriate carts, which no person must touch, except theirpriests or soothsayers who have the care of them. This is to beunderstood only of the great men who are of the race of Zingis,for the poor or meaner people have none such. These soothsayersconstantly attend upon the court of Mangu and other greatpersonages; and when the court moves, these men precede themarch, like the pillar of cloud before the children of Israel.They determine on the site of the new encampment, and unloadtheir houses first, after which they are imitated by the wholecourt. On days of festival, such as the kalends or commencementsof their months, these images are placed in order around theiridol houses, and the Moals enter in and bow themselves beforethese images, to do them reverence. Strangers are never permittedto enter, so that once endeavouring to go into one of thesetabernacles, I was sore chidden for my presumption.

"These supposed Nestorian Christians were undoubtedlyprofessors of the religion of the Dalai-Lama, who had severalusages and ceremonies resembling corrupt Christianity. Like theRoman catholics, they had rosaries, containing 108 beads, andtheir prayer is, Hom-Mani-Pema- Hum. This does notsignify, as asserted by Rubruquis, God! thou knowest it;nor, as supposed by Messerschmid, God have mercy on us.But its true import is, that Mani, who holds the flowersof the Lotus, and is the beginning and end of the higherMagic, may hear their prayers, be propitious tothem, and render them happy.

"They have rolls or cylinders inscribed with their prayers,which they twirl round on an axis, continually pronouncing thesemystic words, and they believe that all the prayers on theserolls are virtually pronounced at each turn of the roll; Thereligion of the Dalai-Lama, is a branch of the Shamanian andBraminical superstitions, and has for its foundation theManichaean doctrine of the two principles, which Manes attemptedto incorporate into the Christian religion, so that it is nowonder the practices of the followers of the Dalai-Lama shouldresemble those of the Manichaean and NestorianChristians."--Forst. Voy. and Disc. 105.

SECTION XXVIII.

Of sundry Nations, and of certain People who used to eattheir Parents.

I am convinced that these Jugurs, who are mixed withChristians and Mahometans, have arrived at the knowledge andbelief of one God, by frequent disputations with them. Thisnation dwells in cities, which were brought under subjection toZingis, who gave his daughter in marriage to their king. EvenCaracarum is in a manner in their territories. The whole countryof Prester John and of Vut or Unc, his brother, lay round theterritories of the Jugurs, only that the subjects of the formerinhabited the pasture lands on the north, while the Jugurs dweltamong the mountains to the south. As the Moals have adopted thewriting of the Jugurs, these latter are the chief Scribes amongthe Tartars, and almost all the Nestorians are acquainted withtheir letters.

Next to the Jugurs, among the mountains to the east, are theTanguts, a powerful people who once made Zingis prisoner inbattle; but having concluded peace, he was set at liberty, andafterwards subdued them. Among the Tanguts, there are oxen ofgreat strength, having flowing tails like horses, and their backsand bellies covered with long hair. These are shorter legged thanother oxen, but much fiercer, having long, slender, straight, andvery sharp pointed horns, and they are much used for drawing thegreat houses of the Moals; but the cows will not allow themselvesto be yoked unless they are sung to at the same time. Theseanimals are of the nature of the buffalo, for when they see aperson clothed in red, they run furiously upon him to put him todeath.

Beyond these are the people of Tebet, who were wont to eat thedead bodies of their parents, from a motive of piety, consideringthat to be the most honourable sepulchre; but they havediscontinued this custom, which was looked upon as abominable byall other nations. They still, however, continue to make handsomedrinking cups of the skulls of their parents, that they may callthem to remembrance even in their mirth. I received thisinformation from an eye-witness. In their country there is muchgold, so that any one who is in want, digs till he finds enoughfor his necessities, and leaves the rest behind for anotheroccasion; for they have an opinion, that God would conceal allother gold from them in the earth, if they were to hoard any intheir houses. I saw some of these people, who are much deformed.The people of Tangut are tall lusty men of a brown complexion.The Jugurs are of middle stature like ourselves, and theirlanguage is the root or origin of the Turkish and Comanianlanguages.

Beyond Tebet, are the people of Langa and Solanga[1], whosemessengers I saw in the court of Mangu-khan, who had along withthem more than ten great carts, each drawn by six oxen. These arelittle brown men like the Spaniards, and are dressed in tunics orjackets, like our deacons, with straiter sleeves. They wear akind of caps like the mitres of our bishops; but the fore part isless than the hinder part, and ends square, instead of beingpointed. These are made of straw, stiffened by great heat, and sowell polished, that they glister in the sun like a mirror or wellpolished helmet. Round their temples, they have long bands of thesame material, fixed to their caps, which stream to the wind liketwo long horns from their temples. When too much tossed by thewind, they fold these over the top of their caps. When theprincipal messenger entered the court, he held in his hand asmooth ivory tablet about a foot long and a palm broad; and whenspoken to by the khan, or any other great man, he always lookedon his tablet as if he had seen there what was spoken, neverlooking to the right or the left, or to the person who spoke tohim. Even in coming into the presence and in retiring, he lookedperpetually at his tablet.

[1] Forster conjectures that the original words ofRubruquis are here corrupted, and that this passage ought to havebeen "beyond Tangut," instead of beyond Tebet or Thibet; in whichcase, the countries of Langa and Solanga, may refer to that ofthe Lamuts and Solonians, the ancestors of the Mantschus orMundschurians.--Voy. and Disc. 108.

Beyond these people, as I have been told for truth, there is anation called Muc, inhabiting towns, in whose country there arenumerous flocks and herds which are never tended, as no personappropriates any of these exclusively; but when any one is inneed of a beast, he ascends a hill and gives a loud cry, on whichall the cattle within hearing flock around him and sufferthemselves to be taken, as if they were domesticated. When amessenger or any stranger goes into that country, he isimmediately shut up in a house, where all necessaries areprovided for him, till his business is concluded; for theyaffirm, that if any stranger were to travel about their country,the animals would flee away from his scent, and become wild.

Beyond the country of these people, lies Great Cathaya, whoseinhabitants I believe to have been the Seres[2] of the ancients,as from thence came the most excellent silken stuffs; and thesepeople were called Seres after the name of one of their towns. Ihave been told, that in that country there is a town having wallsof silver and towers of gold. In that land there are manyprovinces, the greater part of which are not yet subjected to theMoals, and the sea is interposed between them and India. TheseKathayans are men of small stature, with small eyes, and speakmuch through the nose. They are excellent workmen in all kinds ofhandicraft; their physicians judge exactly of diseases by thepulse, and are very skilful in the use of herbs, but have noknowledge in regard to the urine of sick persons. Some of thesepeople I saw at Caracarum, where there are always considerablenumbers; and the children are always brought up to the sameemployments with their fathers. They pay to the Moals or Mongals,a tribute of 1500 cassinos or jascots every day[3], besides largequantities of silks and provisions, and they perform many otherservices. All the nations between mount Caucasus, and from thenorth of these mountains to the east sea, and in all the south ofScythia, which is inhabited by the Moal shepherds, are tributary,and are all addicted to idolatry. The Nestorians and Saracens areintermixed with them as strangers, as far as Kathay, in whichcountry the Nestorians inhabit fifteen cities, and have a bishopin a city called Segan[4]. These Nestorians are very ignorant,for they say their service in the Syrian tongue, in which alltheir holy books are written, and of which language they areentirely ignorant, and sing their service as our monks do whohave not learnt Latin. They are great usurers and drunkards, andsome of them who live among the Tartars, have adopted theircustoms, and even have many wives. When they enter the churches,they wash their lower parts like the Saracens, eat no flesh onFridays, and hold their festivals on the same days with them.Their bishops come seldom into the country, perhaps only once infifty years, and then cause all the little children to be madepriests, some even in the cradle; so that almost every Nestorianman is a priest, yet all have wives, which is contrary to thedecrees of the fathers. They are even bigamists, for theirpriests, when their wives die, marry again. They are allSimonists, as they give no holy thing without pay. They arecareful of their wives and children, applying themselves to gain,and not to propagating the faith. Hence, though some of them areemployed to educate the children of the Mongal nobility, and eventeach them the articles of the Christian faith, yet by their evillives they drive them from Christianity, as the moral conduct ofthe Mongals and Tuinians[5], who are downright idolaters, is farmore upright than theirs.

[2] In this supposition Rubruquis was certainlymistaken, as the Seres of the ancients appear to have lived inTurkestan, Gete, and Uigur, and to have then ruled over a greattrack of eastern central Asia, and may have extended theircommerce to northern China. Hence the original name of silk wascertainly either adopted from or applied to the intermediatenation, through whom that precious commodity was transmitted tothe western nations.--Forst.

[3] A jascot is described as a piece of silverweighing ten marks, so that the tribute is 15,000 marks daily, orabout 5 1/2 millions of marks yearly, and is equal in weight ofsilver, to L. 8,650,000 Sterling; perhaps equal, in realefficacious value, to ten times that sum, and probably superiorto the yearly revenue of all the sovereigns then inEurope.--E.

[4] Singan, or Singan-fu in the province of Shensee.In the year 1625, a stone was found here, inscribed with Chinesecharacters and a Syrian inscription round the borders, implying,that in the year 636, the Nestorians had sent Olopuen into Chinato propagate the gospel; and that the emperor Tai-sum-ven hadapproved this step, and allowed the Christian religion to bepropagated through all China, with many other particularsrelative to the history of Christianity in China. This stone boreto have been erected in 782 by Mar Isdabuzzid, priest, andChorepiscopus of Cumdan, the royal city of the east, now Nankin.See a dissertation on this monument, following Renaudet'stranslation of the two Mahometan travellers, London, 1788, p.76.--E.

[5] Mani or Manes is named Thenaoui by the orientalChristians, and the sect of Manicheans they call Al-Thenaouib, orthose who hold the doctrines of the two principles. TheseTuinians, therefore, of Rubruquis, are probably theManicheans.--Forst.

SECTION XXIX.

Of Cailac, and the Country of the Naymans.

We departed from the city of Cailac on St Andrew's day, 30thof November, and in three leagues we found a village ofNestorians, where we went into their church, and sang salveregina, and other hymns, with great joy. In three days afterwe came to the entrance of that province, not far from the beforementioned sea, which seemed as tempestuous as the ocean, and inwhich we saw a large island. The water was slightly salt, yetmight be drank. Opposite to it was a valley with another saltsea, from which a river ran into this one. There was so strong awind that the passage was dangerous, as we much feared to beblown into the lake; wherefore we went north into the hillycountry, covered with deep snow, and on St Nicholas day, 6thDecember, we hastened our journey, as we found no inhabitantsexcept the Jani, or men appointed to conduct themessengers from one day's journey to another. On the 7th ofDecember we passed between two terrible rocks, when the guidesent entreating me to pray to God: we sang accordingly with aloud voice, the credo and other hymns, and by the grace ofGod we got through in safety.

After this the Tartars entreated me to write papers for them;but I offered to teach them words to carry in their hearts,whereby their souls should be saved. Yet wanting an interpreterfor this, I wrote them the creed and the Lord's prayer, desiringthem to believe what was written in the one, and that the othercontained a prayer to God for all that is necessary to man, andthat though they could not understand these, I hoped God wouldsave them.

SECTION XXX.

Description of the Country of the Naymans, with an Accountof the Death of Ken-khan and of his Wife and Eldest Son.

After this we entered into the country where the court ofKen-khan used to be held, which was formerly called the countryof the Naymans, who were the peculiar subjects of Prester John.Though I did not see that court till my return, I shall brieflymention what befel his son and wives. Ken-khan being dead, Baatudesired that Mangu should be khan, but I could not learn exactlythe manner of Ken-khan's death. Friar Andrew says he died of theeffects of a medicine, which Baatu was suspected of havingprocured to be given him. I heard, on the other hand, that hesummoned Baatu to do him homage, who accordingly began hisjourney with much external pomp, but with great inwardapprehensions, sending forward his brother Stichin; who, when hecame to Keu-khan, and ought to have presented him with the cup,high words arose between them, and they slew one another. Thewidow of Stichin kept us a whole day at her house, that we mightpray for her and bless her. When Ken was dead, and Mangu chosenemperor by the consent of Baatu, which was when friar Andrew wasthere, Siremon, the brother of Ken, at the instigation of thewife and peculiar vassals of Ken, went with a great train, as ifto do homage to Mangu, but with the intention of putting him andall his court to death. When within a few days journey of thecourt of Mangu, one of his waggons broke down, and a servant ofMangu happened to assist the waggoner in repairing it. This manwas very inquisitive into the objects of the journey, and thewaggoner revealed the whole plot to him. Pretending to make verylight of the matter, he went privately and took a good horse fromthe herd, and rode with great speed with the intelligence to thecourt of Mangu; who quickly assembled his forces, and placing astrong guard around his court; sent the rest against Siremon, andbrought him and all his followers prisoners to court. Heconfessed his intentions, and he and his eldest son, with 300noble Tartars of their party, were put to death. The ladies werealso sent for who were concerned in the plot, and being beatenwith burning fire-brands till they confessed, were slainlikewise. Kon, the youngest son of Siremon, who was incapable ofentering into the conspiracy, from his youth, was permitted toenjoy the inheritance of his father; but our guide durst notenter the house either in going or returning.

SECTION XXXI.

Arrival at the Court of Mangu-khan.

We still travelled in the high countries, trending towards thenorth; and on St Stephen's day, 26th December, we came to a greatplain, on which not the smallest inequality was to be seen, andthe next day we arrived at the court of the great Khan. While atthe distance of five days, our host wanted us to have gone so farabout as would have taken us fifteen day's journey, and our guidehad much difficulty in being allowed to take the direct road. Myopinion of this procedure in our host, was, that we might havegone by Onam and Cherule, the original residence of Zingis[1]. Onthe way, the secretary told me that Baatu, in his letters toMangu, said that we wanted the assistance of a Tartar armyagainst the Saracens; by which I was much astonished, as I knewthe letters from your majesty required no army, and only advisedthe khan to be a friend to all Christians, to exalt the cross,and to be an enemy to all the enemies of the cross of Christ. Andas all the interpreters were from the Greater Armenia, whogreatly hated the Saracens, I feared they might have interpretedfalsely to serve their own purposes. I therefore held my peace,fearing to gainsay the words of Baatu.

[1] The country on the Onon and Kerlon, in Daouria,or the land of the Tunguses.--Forst.

On our arrival at court, our guide had a large house appointedfor him, and only a small cottage was given to us three, whichwould hardly contain our baggage, our beds, and a small fire.Many came to our guide with drink made of rice, in long neckedbottles, which had no difference from the best wine, except thatit smelt otherwise. We were called soon after, and examined uponour business. I answered, "That hearing Sartach had become aChristian, the king our master had sent us to him with a letter;that he had sent us to Baatu, who had sent us hither, and that hetherefore ought to have assigned the cause of our being here."They then demanded if we would make peace with them. To this Ianswered, "That having done them no wrong, they had no cause ofgoing to war with your majesty; that your majesty, as a justking, if you had done any wrong, would make reparation, anddesire peace; but if warred against without cause, we trusted inthe help of a just God." At this they seemed all astonished,constantly exclaiming, "Did you not come to make peace?" For theyare so puffed up with pride, that they think the whole worldshould make peace with them; but if I might be suffered, I wouldpreach war against them to the utmost of my power. I dared notdeliver the true cause of my journey, lest, in so doing, I mightcontradict what had been written by Baatu, and therefore alwayssaid we came because he sent us.

The day following I went to the court barefooted, at which thepeople stared; but a Hungarian boy, who was among diem, knew ourorder, and told them the reason; on which a Nestorian, who waschief secretary, asked many questions at the Hungarian, and wewent back to our lodgings. On our return, at the end of thecourt, towards the east, I saw a small house, with a little crossat top, at which I greatly rejoiced, supposing there might besome Christians there. I went in boldly, and found an altar wellfurnished, having a golden cloth, adorned with images of Christ,the Virgin, St John the Baptist, and two angels; the lines oftheir body and garments being formed with small pearls. On thealtar was a large silver cross, ornamented with precious stones,and many other embroiderings; and a lamp with eight lights burnedbefore the altar. Sitting beside the altar I saw an Armenianmonk, somewhat black and lean, clad in a rough hairy coat to themiddle of his leg, above which was a coarse black cloak, furredwith spotted skins, and he was girded with iron under hishaircloth. Before saluting the monk, we fell flat on the earth,singing Ave regina and other hymns, and the monk joined in ourprayers. These being finished, we sat down beside the monk, whohad a small fire before him in a pan. He told us that he had comea month before us, being a hermit in the territories ofJerusalem, who had been warned by God in a vision, to go to theprince of the Tartars. After some conversation, we went to ourlodgings. Having eaten nothing that day, we made a little brothof flesh and millet for our supper. Our guide and his companionswere made drunk at the court, and very little care was taken ofus. Next morning the ends of my toes were so frostbit by theextreme cold of the country, that I could no longer gobarefooted. From the time when the frost begins, it never ceasestill May, and even then it freezes every night and morning, butthaws with the heat of the sun during the day. If they had muchwind in that country during winter, as we have, nothing couldlive there; but they have always mild weather till April, andthen the winds rise; and at that season, while we were there, thecold rising with the wind, killed multitudes of animals. In thewinter little snow fell there; but about Easter, which was thatyear in the latter end of April, there fell so great a snow, thatthe streets of Caracarum were so full, it had to be carried outin carts.

SECTION XXXII.

The Introduction of Rubruquis to Mangu-khan.

The people brought us from the court ram-skin coats, andbreeches of the same, with shoes, which my companion andinterpreter accepted, but I thought the fur garment which Ibrought from Baatu was sufficient for me. On the 5th of January,we were brought to the court, and some Nestorian priests, whom Idid not know to be Christians, came and asked me which way weworshipped; to which I said, that we worshipped to the east. Thereason of their making this demand was, that we had shaven ourheads by the advice of our guide, that we might appear before thekhan after the fashion of our country, which made the Nestorianstake us for Tuinians or idolaters. On being demanded whatreverence we would pay to the khan, I said, that though aspriests, dedicated to God, the highest in our country did notsuffer us to bow the knee, yet we were willing to humbleourselves to all men for the sake of the Lord. That we came froma far country, and with permission, would first sing praises toGod, who had brought us hither in safety, and should afterwardsdo whatever might please the khan; providing he commanded nothingthat was derogatory to the worship and honour of God. Then theywent into the presence, and reported what we had said, and theybrought us before the entrance of the hall, lifting up the feltwhich hung before the decor, and we sung A solis ortuscardine, &c.

When we had sung this hymn, they searched our bosoms, to seethat we had no concealed weapons, and they made our interpreterleave his girdle and knife with one of the doorkeepers. When wecame in, our interpreter was made to stand at a sideboard, whichwas well supplied with cosmos, and we were placed on a formbefore the ladies. The whole house was hung with cloth of gold,and on a hearth, in the middle, there was a fire of thorns,wormwood- roots, and cowdung. The khan sat upon a couch coveredwith a bright and shining spotted fur, like seal's skin. He was aflat-nosed man, of middle stature, about forty-five years of age,and one of his wives, a pretty little young woman, sat besidehim; likewise one of his daughters, named Cerina, a hard-favouredyoung woman, with some younger children, sat on another couchnext to them. The house had belonged to the mother of Cerina, whowas a Christian, and the daughter was mistress of this court,which had belonged to her deceased mother, We were asked whetherwe would drink wine of caracina, which is a drink made ofrice, or caracosmos, or ball, which is mead made of honey;for they use these four kinds of liquor in winter. I answered,that we had no pleasure in drink, and would be contented withwhat he pleased to order; on which we were served with caracina,which was clear and well flavoured like white wine, of which Itasted a little out of respect. After a long interval, duringwhich the khan amused himself with some falcons and other birds,we were commended to speak, and had to bow the knee. The khan hadhis interpreter, a Nestorian; but our interpreter had received somuch liquor from the butlers at the sideboard, that he was quitedrunk; I addressed the khan in the following terms:

"We give thanks and praise to God, who hath brought us fromsuch remote parts of the world, to the presence of Mangu-khan, onwhom he hath bestowed such great power; and we beseech our God togrant him a long and prosperous reign. Having heard that Sartachwas become a Christian, the Christians of the west, especiallythe King of the French, were much rejoiced, and sent us onto himwith letters, testifying that we were servants of the Lord, andentreating him to permit us to abide in his country, as it is ouroffice to teach men the law of God. Sartach sent us forwards tohis father Baatu, and he hath sent us to you, to whom God hathgiven great dominions upon the earth; we therefore entreat yourhighness to permit us to continue in your country, that we maypray to God for you, your wives, and children. We have neithergold nor silver, nor precious jewels to offer, but we presentourselves to do you service, and to pray to God for you. Atleast, be pleased to permit us to remain till the cold be past,as my companion is so weak, that he cannot travel on horsebackwithout danger of Ms life." His answer was to this effect: "Evenas sun sheds his beams everywhere, so our power, and that ofBaata, extend everywhere around, so that we have no need of yourgold or silver." I entreated his highness not to be displeased atme for mentioning gold and silver, as I spoke in that manner onlyto evince our desire to do him honour, and to serve him inheavenly things. Hitherto, I had understood our interpreter, buthe was now drunk and could not make out any perfect sentence, andit appeared to me that the khan was drunk likewise; wherefore Iheld my peace. Then he made us rise and sit down again, and aftera few words of compliment, we withdrew from the presence. One ofthe secretaries, and the interpreter, who had the charge ofeducating one of his daughters, went with us, and were veryinquisitive about the kingdom of France, particularly inquiringwhether it had plenty of sheep, cattle, and horses, as if theymeant to make it all their own; and I had often to bridle myindignation and anger at their presumptuous boastings.

They appointed one to take care of us, and we went to themonk; and when we were about to return to; our lodging, theinterpreter came to us, saying, that Mangu-khan gave us twomonths to stay, till the extreme cold were past; and we mighteither go ten day's journey from thence to the city of Caracarum,or might remain with the court. Then I answered, "God preserveMangu-khan, and grant him a long and happy life: We have foundthis monk, whom we think a holy man, and we would willinglyremain, and pray along with him for the prosperity of the khan."We then went to our dwelling, which we found very cold, as we hadno fuel, and we were yet fasting, though it was then night; buthe who had the care of us provided us some fuel and a littlefood; and our guide, who was now to return to Baatu, begged acarpet from us which we had left in that court, which we gavehim, and he departed in peace.

SECTION XXXIII.

Of a Woman of Lorain, and a Goldsmith of Paris, and severalother Christians, whom they found at the Court ofMangu-kkan.

We had the good fortune to meet with a woman, named Pascha,from Metz in Lorain, who belonged to the court of Cerina, whotold us of the strange poverty she had endured before she came tothis court, but who now lived well, as she had a young Russianhusband, who was a skilful builder, and much esteemed among them,by whom she had three fine children, and this woman contributedall in her power to our comfort. She told us, that there was agoldsmith at Caracarura, one William Bouchier from Paris, the sonof Lawrence Bouchier, and who had a brother, Roger Bouchier, yetliving upon the Great Bridge. She told me likewise, that he had ason who was an excellent interpreter; but that Manga-khan haddelivered to the goldsmith 300 jascots of silver, equal to 3000marks, and fifty workmen, to make a certain piece of work, sothat she feared he would not then be able to spare his son tointerpret for us. I wrote to this goldsmith, requesting him tosend his son to me; he said in answer, that he could not at thetime, but would send him next moon, when his work would befinished. At the court of Baatu no intercourse could be had withother ambassadors, as each was under the charge of a particularJani; but in that of Mangu, all were under one Jani, andmight see and converse with each other. We found here a certainChristian from Damascus, who said that he came from the sultan ofMons Regalis and Crax, who desired to become the ally andtributary of the great khan.

The year before I came thither, there was a certain clerk ofAeon or Ptolemais in Syria, who called himself Raimund, but histrue name was Theodolus. This man went with friar Andrew fromCyprus into Persia, and procured certain instruments fromAmoricus, who remained in Persia after Andrew returned. Theodoluswent forwards with these instruments to the khan, pretending thata certain bishop had received letters from heaven in goldcharacters, saying that the khan should be king of the wholeearth, but that his horse had fled from him among woods andmountains, so that he had lost all. And Theodolus engaged toconduct ambassadors from the khan to the Pope and the king ofFrance. Then Mangu caused an exceedingly strong bow to be made,which two men could hardly bend, and two arrows made of silver,full of holes in their heads, which whistled when they were shot;and he chose a Moal to accompany Theodolus as his ambassador,ordering him to present these things to the king of France, andto say, if he would have peace with the Tartars, they wouldconquer the country of the Saracens, and would grant him ail theother countries of the west. But if the king refused, the Moalwas to bring back the bow and arrows, and to inform the king thatthe Tartars shot far and sharp with such bows. The khan thencaused Theodolus to go out, and the son of William Bouchier, whoacted as interpreter for Theodolus, heard the khan order theMoal, who was to accompany him, to mark well all the ways, andthe castles, and the people, and the mountains, in the course ofhis journey. And the young man blamed Theodolus for engaging toconduct the Tartar messengers, as they went only to spy the land.But Theodolus said he would take them by sea, so that they shouldnot know the way. Mangu gave to his Moal a golden bull or tabletof an hand breadth, and half a cubit long, inscribed with hisorders; and whoever bears this, may everywhere command what hepleases. On their journey through the dominions of Vestacius,whence Theodolus meant to pass over to the Pope, that he mightdeceive him as he had done Mangu. Vestacius demanded of himwhether he had letters for the Pope; but having none to show,Vestacius concluded he was an impostor, and cast him into prison.The Moal fell sick and died there, and Vestacius sent back thegolden tablet by the servants of the Moal, whom I met at Assron,in the entrance into Turkey, and from them I learnt all thathappened to Theodolus.

SECTION XXXIV.

Of a Grand Feast given by Mangu-khan and of the Ceremoniesof the Nestorians.

Epiphany was now at hand, and the Armenian monk, Sergins, toldme, that he was to baptize Mangu-khan on that day. I entreatedhim to use his utmost endeavours that I might be present on theoccasion, which he faithfully promised. When the day came, themonk did not call me, but I was sent for to court at six o'clock,and I met the monk returning with his cross, and the Nestorianpriests with their censers, and the gospel of the day. It is thecustom of Mangu to make a feast on such days as are pointed outby his soothsayers, or the Nestorian priests; and on these daysthe Christians came first to court and pray for him, and blesshis cup, after which the Saracen priests do the same, and afterthem the idolatrous priests. The monk pretended that he onlybelieved the Christians, yet would have all to pray for him; butin this Sergius lied, for he believes none, but all follow hiscourt as flies do honey. He gives to all, and all think they arehis familiars, and all prophecy prosperity to him. Then we satdown before the court, and they brought us flesh to eat, which Irefused, saying, that if they would provide for us, it ought tobe at our house. They then desired us to go home, as we were onlysent for that we might eat. On my return I called on the monk,who was ashamed of the lie he had told me, and would not,therefore, say any more of the matter; yet some of the Nestoriansaffirmed, that the khan had been baptized, but I said that Iwould neither believe it, nor report it to others, as I had notbeen present.

We came to our old empty house, where they provided us inbedding and coverlids, and gave us some fuel They gave us thecarcase of a small lean sheep, as food for us three in six days,and lent us a pot and trivet to boil our flesh, and gave us aplatter of millet every day. We boiled our meat first in water,and afterwards boiled our millet in the broth; and that was ourwhole allowance, which would have sufficed if we had beensuffered to eat in peace, but there were many starved fellowsabout the court that thrust themselves in among us, and insistedto partake. The cold became very severe, and Mangu-khan sent usthree fur coats, with the hair outwards, which we thankfullyreceived; but we represented that we had not a house in which wecould pray for the khan, our cottage being so small that we couldscarcely stand up in it, neither could we open our books onaccount of smoke, after the fire was lighted. On this the khansent to ask the monk if he would be pleased with our company, whogladly received us; and after this we had a better house beforethe court, where none lodged but we and the soothsayers, they infront of the first lady, and we at the farthest end, towards theeast, before the palace of the last lady. We made this alterationon the 13th of January.

Next morning all the Nestorian priests collected at thechapel, and smote on a board, instead of ringing a bell. Theythen sang matins very reverently, put on all their ornaments, andprepared the censer and incense. After waiting some time, CotataCaten[1], the principal wife of the khan, came into the chapel,attended by many ladies, and having with her Baltu, her eldestson, and several other children. All these prostrated themselves,ducking after the manner of the Nestorians; they then touched allthe images and kissed their hands, and afterwards gave the righthand of fellowship to all who stood beside them, which is thecustom among the Nestorians. The priest sang many hymns, and gavethe lady some incense in her hand, which she threw into the fire,and then the priests perfumed her. After this she began to putoff the ornaments of her head, called Bacca, and I saw herbareheaded; but as we were now commanded to leave the chapel, Iknow not what followed. As I was going out I saw a silver basinbrought, but I am ignorant if she was then baptized, but ratherthink not; because at Easter I saw a fount consecrated with greatsolemnity, and some persons baptized, but no such ceremony wasseen on the present occasion, and I know they do not celebratethe mass in a tent, but only in a standing church.

[1] Caten signifies lady and Cotata was herparticular name.--Harris.

During our absence, Mangu-khan himself came to the chapel,into which a golden bed was brought, on which he sat with hisqueen, opposite the altar. We were then sent for, and adoor-keeper searched us for concealed weapons. On going in with abible, and breviary in my bosom, I first bowed down before thealtar, and then made an obeisance to Mangu-khan, who caused ourbooks to be brought to him, and enquired the signification of theimages or pictures with which they were ornamented, to which theNestorians answered as they thought proper, because we had notour interpreter. Being desired to sing a psalm after our manner,we chanted Veni sancte Spiritus. Then the khan departed,but the lady remained, and distributed gifts to all theChristians present. She gave the monk Sergius a jascot, andanother to the archdeacon of the Nestorians, and she caused anassic or large cloth like a coverlet, and a buckram, tobe spread out before us; and as I declined the offer, she sentthem to our interpreter, who sold the nassic at Cyprus, foreighteen gold sultanies, though it was much the worse for thecarriage. Then red wine, like that of Rochelle, and caracina andcosmos were brought, and the lady holding a cupful in her hand,desired a blessing on her knees, and she drank it up, we and allthe priests singing with a loud voice.

Another time, when they were mostly all drunk, the carcass ofa sheep was brought in and presently devoured, and then somelarge fishes, resembling our carp, which they eat without breador salt. And when the lady was drunk, she took her chariot andwent away, the priests singing all the while. Next Sunday, theson of the khan, by a Christian mother, came to the chapel andacted in a similar manner, but not with so much solemnity, andonly gave the priests to drink, and some parched millet to eat.Before the first Sunday in Lent, the Nestorians fast three days,which they call the fast of Jonas; and the Armenians fast fivedays in honour of St Lorkis, their tutelary saint. The Nestoriansbegin their fast on Tuesday and end it on Thursday, and on Fridaythey bless the flesh, as if it were the Paschal Lamb. The monksent to Mangu to fast that week, which he did; and on theArmenian Easter, he went in procession to the house of Mangu,accompanied by us and the Nestorian priests. While we went in,some servants met us carrying out some shoulder-blades of sheep,burnt as black as coals; and on enquiring, I learnt that the khanperforms a divination, before undertaking any important matter,in this manner. He causes three of these bones to be brought tohim unburnt, which are sought for all over the Leskar orTartar camp for this purpose; and these bones are burnt in aparticular fire, and then brought to him again. If the bones arecracked across, or round pieces fly out of them in burning, it isconsidered an evil omen; but if they crack lengthways, even oneof the three, he then proceeds in his design.

When we went in before Mangu, the Nestorian priests gave himincense, which he put upon the censer, with which they perfumedhim. Then they sung and blessed his cup, which was done next bythe monk, and lastly by us. After he had drunk, the attendantsgave drink to the priests, but we went out; and my companionstaying last, turned round near the door to make his obeisance tothe khan, and hastily turning again to follow us, stumbled on thethreshold, for which he was seized and carried before theBulgai, who is the chancellor or chief secretary of thecourt, and judges those who are arraigned on matters of life anddeath. But I knew not of all this, as missing him on lookingback, I thought he had been detained to receive thinner apparel,for he was very weak, and could hardly walk under his load ofgarments. He was sent home in the evening, and the monk sharplyrebuked him for having touched the threshold. Next day, theBulgai came to me, and demanded to know if any one had warned usagainst touching the threshold; to which I answered, that as wehad not our interpreter along with us, we should not haveunderstood them if the caution had been given. On this mycompanion was pardoned, but was never allowed, afterwards to comeinto any of the houses of Mangu-khan.

From the house of the khan, we went to that of his eldest son,who had two wives, and lodged next on the right from his father.As soon as he saw us approach, he leapt from his bed andprostrated himself before the cross, striking the ground with hisforehead, then rising and kissing the cross, he caused it to beplaced on a new cloth, in a high place, very reverently. He has atutor, named David, to instruct him, who is a Nestorian priestand a great drunkard. The prince gave drink to the priests, andhe drank himself, after the priests had blessed his cup. From himwe went to the court of Cota, the khans second lady, who is anidolater, and whom we found very sick; yet the Armenian monk madeher rise from bed and adore the cross on her knees, with manyceremonies. We then went to the third court, in which a Christianlady formerly resided; but on her death, she was succeeded by ayoung woman, who, with the khans daughter, joyfully received us,and worshipped the cross with great reverence. We went then intothe house of the young lady Cerina, behind the third court, whichhad formerly belonged to her mother, who likewise worshipped thecross with great devotion. We next went into the court of thefourth and last lady, whose house was very old, but the khan gaveher a new house and new chariots after Easter. This lady was anidolater, yet she worshipped the cross, according to thedirections of the monk and priests. From that place we returnedto our oratory, the monks accompanying us with great howlings andoutcries in their drunkenness, as they had been plentifullysupplied with drink at every visit; but this is not considered asblameable or unseemly, either in man or woman in these parts.

SECTION XXXV.

Of a great Cure performed by the Armenian monk Sergius, onone of the Wives of Mangu-khan.

Sometime after the lady Cota was sick almost to death, and thedivination by lot of the idolaters did her no good. Mangu-khanthen sent for the monk, who indiscreetly engaged to cure her onthe forfeiture of his head. On this, the monk sent for us, andentreated us, with tears, to watch and pray all night along withhim, which we did. He took of a certain root called rhubarb,which he beat to powder and put among water, along with a littlecrucifix, and he used to give of that water to all sick persons,which griped them by reason of its bitterness, and which theyattributed to a miracle. I proposed to prepare some holy water,according to the rites of the church of Rome, which hath greatpower to cast out devils, as I understood the lady was vexed of adevil[1]. At his request, I consecrated some holy water, which hemingled with the rhubarb, and left his crucifix all night in themixture.

[1] From the whole of this story, it would appearthat the lady Cota was hysterical from constipation; and thatSergius had the good fortune to remove the cause by a few dosesof rhubarb.--E.

Next morning I and the monk and two Nestorian priests went tothe lady, who was then in a small house behind her great one. Shesat up in her bed and worshipped the cross, laying it honourablyby her upon a silken cloth; she drank of the holy water mixedwith rhubarb, and washed her breast, and, at the desire of themonk, I read the passion of our Lord according to St John, overher. At length she felt herself relieved, and ordered fourjascots to be brought, which she first laid at the foot of thecross, and gave three to the monk, offering one to me, which Irefused; then the monk took this likewise, and gave one to eachof the priests, keeping two to himself, so that she gave awayforty marks in all at this time.[2] She then ordered wine, whichshe gave to the priests, and made me drink thrice from her handin honour of the holy trinity. She likewise began to teach me thelanguage, jesting with me, because I was silent for want of aninterpreter.

[2] About L. 30, perhaps equal in efficacy to L. 300of modern days; no bad fee for administering a dose ofrhubarb.--E.

Next day Mangu-khan, hearing that we were passing, and havinglearned that the lady Cota was somewhat better, made us come in,and took the cross into his hand, asking several questions, whichI did not understand, but I did not see that he worshipped it.The monk, by my suggestion, craved leave to carry the cross alofton a lance, and Manga gave permission that it might be carried inany way we thought fit. Then paying our obeisance to the khan, wewent to the lady Cota, whom we found strong and cheerful. Shestill drank the holy water, and we read the passion over her; butthose miserable priests never taught her the articles of our holyfaith, neither advised her to be baptized, nor did they findfault with any kind of sorcery. For I saw four swords half drawnout of their sheaths, one at the head of her bed, one at thefoot, and one on either side of her door. I observed likewise oneof our silver chalices, probably taken from some church inHungary, which hung against the wall, full of ashes, on the topof which lay a black stone; but these priests not only do notteach them that such things are evil, but even practice similarthings. We continued our visits for three days, by which time shewas restored to perfect health. During these visits, shecontinued to rally me on my silence, and endeavoured to teach metheir language.

I honoured the monk Sergius as my bishop, because he couldspeak the language, though he was totally uneducated; and Iafterwards learnt, when I came to his own country on my return,that he was no priest, but merely an adventurous weaver. In manythings he acted in a way that much displeased me, for he causedto be made for himself a folding chair such as bishops use, andgloves, and a cap of peaco*cks feathers, with a small gold cross;but I was well pleased with the cross. He had scabbed feet, whichhe endeavoured to palliate with ointments[3]; was verypresumptuous in speech, was present at many of the vain andidolatrous rites of the Nestorians, and had many other vanitieswith which I was much displeased. Yet we joined his society fordie honour of the cross, as he got a banner full of crosses on acane as long as a lance, and we carried the cross aloft throughamong all the tents of the Tartars, singing Vexilla regisprodeant, &c. to the great regret of the Mahometans, whowere envious of our favour.

[3] This surely was a sinless infirmity, and needednot to have been recorded to his dishonour. He was probablyafflicted with chilblains, in consequence of the severity of theTartarian climate.--E.

I was informed of a certain Armenian who came, as he said,from Jerusalem along with the monk Sergius, carrying a silvercross of about four marks weight, adorned with precious stones,which he presented to Mangu-khan, who asked what was hispetition. He represented himself to be the son of an Armenianpriest, whose church had been destroyed by the Saracens, andcraved his help for rebuilding that church. Being asked how muchthat might cost, he said two hundred jascots, or two thousandmarks; and the khan ordered letters to be given him, orderingthose who received the tribute of Persia and the Greater Armenia,to pay him that sum in silver[4]. The monk continued to carrythis cross about with him wherever he went, and the Nestorianpriests became envious of the profit which he derived from itsuse.

[4] L. 1500 in weight, equal at least to L. 15,000 ofour modern money; a most magnificent present to an itinerantbeggar.--E.

SECTION XXXVI.

Account of the Country under the Dominion of the Great Khanof the Manners and Customs of his Subjects; of a Wonderful Pieceof Mechanism, constructed by a French Goldsmith; and of thePalace of the Khan at Caracarum.

From the time of our arrival at the court of Mangu-khan, theleskar or camp made only two days journey towards the south; andit then began its progress northwards, in the direction ofCaracarum. In the whole of my journey I was convinced of thetruth of what I had been informed by Baldwin de Hainault atConstantinople, that the whole way eastwards was by a continualascent, as all the rivers run from the east towards the west,sometimes deviating towards the north or south, more or lessdirectly, but never running east, but this was farther confirmedto me by the priests who came from Kathay[1]. From the placewhere I found Mangukhan, it is twenty days journey south-east toKathay, and ten days journey right east to Oman Kerule, theoriginal country of the Moal and of Zingis[2]. In those partsthere are no cities, but the country is inhabited by a peoplecalled Su-Moall, or Mongols of the waters, who live upon fish andhunting, and have neither flocks nor herds. Farther north,likewise, there is no city, but a poor people of herdsmen, whoare called Kerkis. The Orangin are there also, who bind smoothbones under their feet, and thrust themselves with such velocityover the ice and snow, as to overtake beasts in the chase. Thereare many other poor nations in those parts, inhabiting as far tothe north as the cold will permit, who join on the west with thecountry of Pascatir, or the Greater Hungary, of which I have mademention before[3]. In the north the mountains are perpetuallycovered with snow, and the bounds are unknown by reason of theextreme cold. All these nations are poor; yet they must allbetake themselves to some employment, as Zingis established a lawthat none was to be free from service till so old as to be unablefor work.

[1] So for as was travelled by Rubruquis, and in theroute which he pursued on the north of the Alak mountains, thisobservation is quite correct to longitude 100° E. But what hehere adds respecting Kathay, is directly contradictory to thefact; as all the rivers beyond Caracarum run in an easterlydirection. The great central plain of Tangut, then traversed bythe imperial horde of the Mongals, and now by the Eluts andKalkas, must be prodigiously elevated above the level of theocean.--E.

[2] The information here seems corrupted, or at leastis quite incorrect. Kathay or northern China is due east, or eastsouth-east from the great plain to the south of Karakum. Daouria,the original residence of the Mongols of Zingis, between therivers Onon and Kerlon, is to the north-east.--E.

[3] The Kerkis must fee the Kirguses, a tribe of whom*once dwelt to the south-west of lake Baikal. The Orangin orOrangey, inhabited on the east side of that lake. Pascatir is thecountry of the Bashkirs, Baschkirians, or Pascatirians in GreatBulgaria, called Great Hungary in the text, between the Volga andthe Ural.--E.

I was inquisitive about the monstrous men of whom Isidore andSolinus make mention; but no one had ever seen any such, and Itherefore doubt whether it be true. Once a priest of Kathay satby me, clothed in red, of whom I asked how that colour wasprocured. He told me that on certain high; craggy rocks in theeast of Kathay there dwelt certain creatures like men, not abovea cubit long, and all hairy, who leapt rather than walked, anddwelt in inaccessible caves. That those who go to hunt them carrystrong drink, which they leave in holes of the rocks, and thenhide themselves. These little creatures come out from theirholes, and having tasted the drink, call out chin-chin, onwhich multitudes gather together, and drink till they are drunk,and fall asleep. Then the hunters come and bind them, after whichthey draw a few drops of blood from the veins of the neck of eachof these creatures, and let them go free; and this blood is themost precious purple dye. He told me, likewise, that there is aprovince beyond Kathay, into which, if a man enters, he alwayscontinues of the same age at which he entered; but this I do notbelieve[4].

[4] Rubruquis properly rejects the stories ofmonstrous men, related by the ancients, yet seems to swallow theabsurd story of the purple dye, engrafted by the Kathayan prieston a very natural invention for catching apes. He disbelieves thelast information of the priest, which must have been anenigmatical representation of the province of death, or of thetombs.--E.

Kathay is on the ocean, and I was told by the French goldsmithat Caracarum, that there is a people or nation called Tante andManse, inhabiting certain islands, the sea around which is frozenin winter, so that the Tartars might invade them; but they sentmessengers to the great khan, offering a tribute of 2000 tuemenor jascots yearly, to permit them to live in peace[5]. A tuemen,toman, or jascot, is a piece of money equal to ten marks.

[5] It is difficult to guess as to these people andtheir islands; which may possibly refer to Japan, or even Corea,which is no island. Such tribute could not have been offered bythe rude inhabitants of Saghalien or Yesso.--E.

The ordinary money of Kathay is of paper made like pasteboard,the breadth and length of a hand, on which lines are printed,like the seal of Mangu. They write with a pencil like that usedby our painters, and in one figure they comprehend many letters,forming one word[6]. The people of Thibet write as we do, andtheir characters are very like our own. Those of Tangut writefrom right to left, like the Arabs, and multiply their linesascending; while the Jugurs write in descending columns. Thecommon money of the Rutenians or Russians, consists in spotted orgrizzled furs.

[6] This evidently but obscurely describes theChinese characters; the most ingenious device ever contrived forthe monopoly of knowledge and office to the learned class, andfor arresting the progress of knowledge and science at a fixedboundary.--E.

When our Quinquagesima came, which is the Lent time of all thepeople of the east, the lady Cota fasted all that week, and cameevery day to our oratory, giving meat to the priests and otherChristians, of whom a great company came daily to attend theservice. But the porters of the court, seeing such multitudescome daily to our chapel, which was within the precincts of thecourt, sent one to tell the monk, that they would not allow suchmultitudes to come within their bounds; to this the monk made asharp reply, and threatened to accuse them to the khan; but theyprevented him, and lodged a complaint before Mangu, that the monkwas too full of words, and gathered too great a multitude to hearhim speak. On this he was called before the khan, who reprovedhim severely, saying, that as a holy man, he should employhimself in prayers to God, and not in speeches to men. But he wasafterwards reconciled, by promising to go to the Pope, and toinduce all the nations of the west to yield obedience to thekhan. On his return to the oratory, the monk asked me if Ithought he might gain admission to the Pope as the messenger ofMangu; and whether the Pope would supply him with horses to go toSt James in Galicia; and whether your majesty would send your sonto the court of Mangu. But I counselled him, to beware of makingfalse promises to Mangu, and that God needed not the service oflies or deceitful speaking. About this time a dispute arosebetween the monk and one of the Nestorian priests, more learnedthan the rest, as the monk asserted that man was created beforeparadise, which the other denied; on reference to me, I said thatparadise was created on the second day, when the othertrees were made, whereas man was made on the sixth. Then the monksaid, that the devil brought clay on die first day, from all thecorners of the earth, of which he made the body of man, which Godinspired with a soul. On this I sharply reproved him for hisheretical ignorance, and he scorned me for my ignorance of thelanguage: I departed, therefore, from him to our own house. Butwhen he and the priests went afterwards in procession to thecourt without calling me, Mangu earnestly enquired the reason ofmy absence; and the priests being afraid, excused themselves aswell as they could, and reported to me the words of the khan,murmuring at the monk. After this the monk was reconciled to me,and I entreated him to aid me in acquiring the language,promising to help him to the knowledge of the HolyScriptures.

After the first week of fasting, the lady ceased from comingto the oratory, and to give meat and drink, so that we hadnothing but brown bread, and paste boiled in melted snow or ice,which was exceedingly bad. My companion was much grieved at thisdiet, on which I acquainted David, the teacher of the khanseldest son, with our necessities, who made a report to the khan,and we were then supplied, with wine, flour, and oil. TheNestorians and Armenians eat no fish in Lent; but the monk had achest under the altar, with almonds, and raisins, and driedprunes, and other fruits, on which he fed when alone.

About the middle of Lent, the goldsmiths son came fromCaracarum, bringing a silver cross made in the French fashion,with an image of Christ, as a present for Bulgai, the chiefsecretary of the court; and the young man informed Mangu, thatthe great work he had commanded to be made by his father, wascompleted. In the neighbourhood of Caracarum, Mangu has a largecourt, inclosed with a brick wall like our priories. Within thatcourt is a great palace, in which the khan holds feasts twicea-year, once in Easter, and the other in summer; but the latteris the greater, as all the nobles meet then at the court, whenthe khan distributes garments among them, and displays all hismagnificence. Beside the palace there are many great buildingslike our barns, in which the victuals and treasures belonging tothe khan are stored. Because it was indecent to have flaggonsgoing about the hall of the palace, as in a tavern, William, thegoldsmith, constructed a great silver tree, just without themiddle entrance of the great hall, at the root of which were foursilver lions, having pipes discharging pure cows milk. Four pipeswere conveyed up the body of the tree to its top, which spreadout into four great boughs, hanging downwards; on each of theseboughs was a golden serpent, all their tails twining about thebody of the tree, and each of these formed a pipe, onedischarging wine, a second caracosmos, a third ball, or mead madeof honey, and the fourth teracina or drink made of rice;each particular drink having a vessel at the foot of the tree toreceive it. On the top, between the four pipes, there stood animage of an angel with a trumpet. Under the tree there was avault, in which a man was hidden, and from him a pipe ascended tothe angel; and when the butler commands to sound the trumpet, theman below blows strongly, and the trumpet emits a shrill sound.In a chamber without the palace, the liquors are stored, andservants who are waiting, pour the liquors each in its properpipe, at the signal, when they are conveyed by concealed pipes upthe body of the tree, and discharged into, their appropriatevessels, whence they are distributed by the under butlers to thevisitors. The tree is all ornamented with silver boughs, andleaves and fruit all of silver. The palace is like a church,having a middle aisle and two side ones, beyond two rows ofpillars, and has three gates to the south, and before the middlegate stands the silver tree. The khan sits at the north wall, ona high place, that he may be seen of all, and there are twoflights of steps ascending to him, by one of which his cup-bearergoes up, and comes down by the other. The middle space betweenthe throne and the silver tree is left vacant for the cup-bearersand the messengers who bring presents; on the right side of thekhan the men sit, and the women on the left. One woman only sitsbeside him, but not so high as he.

About Passion Sunday, the khan went before with his smallhouses only, leaving the great ones behind, and the monk and wefollowed. On the journey we had to pass through a hillycountry[7] where we encountered high winds, extreme cold, andmuch snow. About midnight the khan sent to the monk and us,requesting us to pray to God to mitigate the severity of theweather, as the beasts in his train were in great jeopardy, beingmostly with young, and about to bring forth. Then the monk senthim incense, desiring him to put it on the coals, as an offeringto God: Whether he did this or no, I know not, but the tempestceased, which had lasted two days. On Palm Sunday we were nearCaracarum, and at dawn of day we blessed the willow boughs, onwhich, as yet, there were no buds. About nine o'clock we enteredthe city of Caracarum, carrying the cross aloft with the banner,and passing through the street of the Saracens, in which themarket is held, we proceeded to the church, where the Nestoriansmet; us in procession. We found them prepared to celebrate themass, and they all communicated; but I declined this, havingalready drank, and the sacrament should always be receivedlasting. After mass, being now evening, William Bouchier, thegoldsmith, brought us to sup at his lodging. He had a wife, bornin Hungary, of Mahometan parents, who spoke French, and thelanguage of the Comanians. We found here also one Basilicus, theson of an Englishman, likewise born in Hungary, who was likewiseskilled in these languages. After supper we retired to ourcottage, which, with the oratory of the monk, were placed nearthe Nestorian church; which is of considerable size, and veryhandsomely built, and all the ceiling is covered with silk,wrought with gold.

[7] From this circ*mstance, it would appear thatRubruquis had found the court of the khan in the country of theEluts, to the south of the Changai mountains, perhaps aboutlatitude 44° N. and longitude 103° E, the meridian of thesupposed site of Karakum on the Orchon. And it may be presumed,that the imperial suite was now crossing the Changai chaintowards the north.--E.

I much deliberated with myself, whether I should continue incommunion with the monk and the Nestorians, because I saw theiractions full of idolatry and sorcery; but I feared to giveoffence to the khan in separating from the other Christians, as Isaw that my presence pleased him, for which reason I alwaysaccompanied them to court; but when there I did not join in theirmummeries, praying always in a loud voice for the church, andthat God would direct the khan in the right way of salvation. Onone occasion the khan promised to come to the church next day;but he departed on his journey to the northward, desiring thepriests to excuse him, because he had learnt that the dead werecarried thither. But we remained behind, that we might celebratethe festival of Easter. There were a vast multitude ofHungarians, Alans, Rutenians or Russians, Georgians, andArmenians, who had not received the sacrament since they weretaken prisoners, as the Nestorians would not admit them intotheir church unless they were rebaptized; yet they offered theirsacrament freely to us, and allowed me to see their manner ofconsecration; on the vigil of Easter I saw their ceremony ofbaptism. They pretend to have the ointment with which MaryMagdalen anointed the feet of Jesus, and they put in so much ofthat oil in kneading their sacramental bread; for all the peopleof the east use butter, or oil, or fat from a sheeps tail, intheir bread, instead of leaven. They pretend also to have of theflour of which the bread was made which was consecrated by ourLord at his Last Supper, as they always keep a small piece ofdough from each baking, to mix up with the new, which theyconsecrate with great reverence. In administering this to thepeople, they divide the consecrated loaf first into twelveportions, after the number of the apostles, which they afterwardsbreak down into smaller pieces, in proportion to the number ofcommunicants, giving the body of Christ into the hand of everyone, who takes it from his own palm with much reverence, andafterwards lays his hand on the top of his head.

I was much at a loss how to act, as the Nestorians entreatedme to celebrate the festival, and I had neither vestments,chalice, nor altar. But the goldsmith furnished me withvestments, and made an oratory on a chariot, decently paintedwith scripture histories; he made also a silver box or pix forthe host, and an image of the blessed Virgin, and caused an ironinstrument to be made for us to make hosts in our way. Then Imade the before mentioned Christians to confess to me, as well asI could, by means of an interpreter, explaining to them the tencommandments, the seven deadly sins, and other matters, exhortingthem to confession and penitence: But all of them publicklyexcused themselves respecting theft, saying that they could nototherwise live, as their masters neither provided them with foodor raiment; and I said they might lawfully take necessaries fromtheir masters, especially as they had forcibly deprived them oftheir subsistence and liberty. Some who were soldiers excusedthemselves from having gone to the wars, as otherwise they wouldbe slain; these I forbid to go against Christians, declaring,that if slain for their refusal, God would account them asmartyrs. After this I gave the holy communion to these people onEaster day, and I hope, with the blessing of God to many, beingassisted by the Nestorians, who lent me their chalice and paten.They baptized above threescore persons on Easter eve with greatsolemnity, to the great joy of all the Christians.

Soon after this William Bouchier was grievously sick, and whenrecovering, the monk Sergius visited him, and gave him so great adoze of rhubarb as had almost killed him. On this I expostulatedwith the monk, that he ought either to go about as an apostle,doing miracles by the virtue of prayer and the Holy Ghost, or asa physician, according to the rules of the medical aid, and notto administer strong potions to people who were not prepared.About this time the principal priest of the Nestorians, who was akind of archdeacon over the rest, became sick $ and when Iendeavoured, at the request of his family, to prevail upon themonk to visit him, he said, "Let him alone for he and threeothers intend to procure an order from Mangu-khan to expel youand I." And I learnt afterwards, that there was a dispute betweenthem, as Mangu-khan had sent four jascots on Easter eve to themonk, to distribute among the priests; and Sergius, keeping oneto himself, had given three to the priests, one being acounterfeit, and the priests thought Sergius had kept too great ashare to himself. Finding the archdeacon in a dying way, Iadministered to him the Eucharist and extreme unction, which hereceived with great humility and devotion; but, by the advice ofthe monk, I quitted him before he died, as otherwise I could nothave entered the court of Mangu-khan for a whole year. When hewas dead, the monk said to me, "Never mind it: This man only,among the Nestorians, had any learning, and opposed us;henceforwards Mangu-khan and all the rest will crouch at ourfeet." He even pretended that he had killed him by his prayers. Iafterwards learnt that the monk practised divination, with theaid of a Russian deacon, though, when I challenged him, hepretended to excuse himself, and to deny the truth of what hadbeen reported to me: But I could not leave him, having beenplaced there by command of the khan, so that I dared not toremove without his special command.

Exclusive of the palace of the khan, Caracarum is not so goodas the town of St Denis, and the monastery of St Dennis is worthmore than ten times the value of the palace itself. It containstwo principal streets: that of the Saracens in which the fairsare held, and to which many merchants resort, as the court isalways near; the other is the street of the Kathayans, which isfull of artificers. Besides these streets, there are manypalaces, in which are the courts of the secretaries of the khan.There are twelve idol temples belonging to different nations, twoMahometan mosques, and one Nestorian church at the end of thetown. The town itself is inclosed with a mud wall, and has fourgates. On the east side, there is a market for millet and othergrain, but which is ill supplied; on the west, sheep and goatsare sold; on the north side, oxen and waggons; and on the southside, horses.

Mangu-khan has eight brothers, three by the mother and five bythe father. One of these on the mothers side he sent into thecountry of the Assassines, called Mulibet by the Tartars,with orders to kill them all. Another was sent into Persia, whois supposed to have orders to send armies into Turkey, and fromthence against Bagdat and Vestacius. One of his other brothershas been sent into Kathay, to reduce certain rebels. His youngestmaternal brother, named Arabucha, lives with him, and keeps uphis mothers court, who was a Christian.

About this time, on account of a violent quarrel between themonk and certain Mahometans, and because a rumour was propagatedof four hundred assassins having gone forth in divers habits,with an intention to murder the khan, we were ordered to departfrom our accustomed place before the court, and to remove to theplace where other messengers dwelt. Hitherto I had always hopedfor the arrival of the king of Armenia[8], and had not thereforemade any application for leave to depart; but hearing no news ofthe king, or a certain German priest who was likewise expected,and fearing lest we should return in the winter, the severity ofwhich I had already experienced, I sent to demand the pleasure ofthe khan, whether we were to remain with him or to return, andrepresenting that it would be easier for us to return in summerthan in winter. The khan sent to desire that I should not go faroff, as he meant to speak with me next day; to which I answered,requesting him to send for the son of the goldsmith to interpretbetween us, as my interpreter was very incompetent.

[8] Haitho, of whom some account will be found in thesucceeding chapter of this work.--E.

SECTION XXXVII.

Of certain disputes between Rubruquis and the Saracens andIdolaters, at the Court of Mangu-khan, respectingReligion.

Next day I was brought to the court, and some of the chiefsecretaries of the khan came to me, one of whom was a Moal, whois cup-bearer to the khan, and the rest were Saracens. These mendemanded on the part of the khan, wherefore I had come there? Tothis I answered, as I had done before, that I came to Sartach,who sent me to Baatu, and he had ordered me to the khan, to whomI had nothing to say on the part of any man, unless I shouldspeak the words of God if he would hear them, for the khan shouldknow best what Baatu had written. Then they demanded what wordsof God I would speak to the khan, thinking I meant to prophecyprosperous things as others had done. To this I answered, "If yewould that I speak the words of God unto the khan, get me aninterpreter." They said they had sent for him, but urged me tospeak by the present one, as they would understand me perfectly.I therefore said, "This is the word of God, to whom much isgiven, much will be required at his hands; and to whom much isforgiven, he ought the more to love God. To Manga I would say,that God hath given much; for the power and riches which heenjoys, come not from the idols of the Tuinians, but from theomnipotent God who hath made heaven and earth, in whose hands areall kingdoms and dominions, and who transferreth them from nationto nation for the sins of men; wherefore if he love God, it willgo well with him, but if otherwise, God will require all thingsat his hands, even to the utmost farthing." Then they asked if Ihad been in Heaven, that I should know the commandments of God? Isaid no, but that God hath given them from Heaven to holy men,and had at length descended from Heaven to earth to teach us, andthat we had those things in the Scriptures, and could judge fromtheir works whether men kept the commandments of God or disobeyedthem. They then asked if I meant to say that Mangu-khan did notkeep the commandments of God? To this I answered, "When I shallhave a proper interpreter and am permitted, I shall then recitethe commandments of God before Mangu, and he shall be his ownjudge, whether he hath kept or disobeyed them." Upon this, theywent and told Mangu, that I said he was an idolater and Tuinian,and kept not the commandments of God. Next day Mangu sent one ofhis secretaries, saying, "Ye are here Christians, Mahometans, andTuinians, wherefore the khan desires that ye will all cometogether and make comparison of your opinions, that he may knowthe truth." To this I answered, "Blessed be God that hath putthis in the heart of the khan; but our Scriptures command theservants of God not to be contentious, but meek unto all.Wherefore I am ready, without strife or contention, to render atrue account of the faith and hope of the Christians to every onewho may require to be informed." They wrote down my words andbrought them to the khan.

Next day, another message came from the khan, desiring againto know on what account I had come to his court; to which Ianswered, that this might be known from the letters of Bantu. Butthey said that these letters were lost, and the khan hadforgotten their contents, and would know of me. Somewhatemboldened by this, I said, "The duty and office of our religionis to preach the gospel unto all. Wherefore, having heard of thefame of, the Mongals, I desired to come to them; and hearing thatSartach had become a Christian, I directed my journey to him, andmy sovereign the king of the French sent him letters containinggood words of friendship, testifying what men we were, andrequesting we might be permitted to remain with the people ofMoal That Sartach had sent us to Baatu, and he had ordered us toMangu-khan, whom we had entreated and still do entreat to sufferus to stay." They wrote all this, and made a report of it to thekhan. On the morrow he sent again that he knew we had no messagefor him, but came to pray for him as other priests did, butdesired to know if any of our ambassadors had ever been in theircountry, or any of theirs in our parts. Then I declared unto themall I knew respecting David and Friar Andrew, all of which wasput down in writing and laid before Mangu. They came back,saying, "Our lord the khan thinks you have staid long here, andhis pleasure is that you return into your own country; but hedesires to know whether you would conduct his ambassadors alongwith you." To this I answered, that I dared not to carry hisambassadors beyond his own dominions, as a warlike nation dweltbetween their country and ours, between the sea and themountains, and being only a poor monk, I could not take upon meto be their guide. This they likewise set down in writing andcarried to the khan.

The Nestorians were commanded to set down in writing all thatthey would speak in favour of the Christian religion; and theywrote out a chronicle from the creation of the world to thepassion of Christ; and passing over the passion, they spake ofthe resurrection of the dead, and of the day of judgment. Findingmany things wrong, I pointed them out, and we wrote out the creedor symbol. Asking them how they meant to proceed in theconference, they said they meant to begin with the Saracens; butI dissuaded them from that, because, as they agreed with us inthe belief of one only God, they would assist against theTuinians. I then pointed out to them the original of idolatry inthe world; and they desired me to explain these things beforeMangu, and then to let them speak, because I should find itdifficult and tedious to speak by an interpreter. I then proposedto try them, by taking the side of the Tuinians, while theyshould defend the opinions of the Christians; but they knew nothow to prove any thing, except merely by quoting theirScriptures. To this I said, that these men believed not in ourScriptures, and would oppose them by advancing contrary opinionsand positions from those books which they accounted holy. Then Idesired that they would allow me to speak first; since if I wereovercome they would be permitted to speak, whereas if they wereconfuted, I would be refused a hearing, and to this theyconsented.

All things being arranged, we convened at our oratory, andMangu-khan sent three of his secretaries, a Christian, a Saracen,and a Tuinian, to be judges of the controversy. It was firstproclaimed, "This is the order of Mangu-khan, and none dare saythat the commandment of God is otherwise. Let none speakcontentiously, or use injurious words to one another, or make anytumult whereby this business may be hindered, upon pain ofdeath." There was a great assembly, as every party had convenedthe wisest of their sect, and many others came flocking around tolisten; but all were silent. The Christians set me in the middle,willing that I should contend with the Tuinians; who murmuredagainst Mangu, as no khan had ever thus endeavoured to searchinto their secrets. Yet they opposed one from Kathay to me, whohad his interpreter, while I had the son of the goldsmith tointerpret my words. The Kathayan said to me, "Friend! if you beput to a nonplus, who must seek a wiser than thou art?" To this Imade no reply. Then he demanded whether I would dispute as to howthe world was made, or as to what became of the souls afterdeath? For they were desirous to begin with these questions, asthey held them for the strongest in their doctrines, all theTuinians following the heresy of the Manicheans, believing in agood and a bad principle, and they all believe that souls passfrom body to body. In confirmation of this, the goldsmith told methey had brought a person from Kathay, who, by the size of hisbody, appeared to be only three years old, yet was capable ofreasoning, and knew how to write, and who affirmed that he hadpassed through three several bodies. Even one of the wisest ofthe Nestorians demanded of me whether the souls of brutes couldfly to any place after death where they should not be compelledto labour.

To the before-mentioned question of the Kathayan, I answered:"Friend, this ought hot to be the commencement of our conference.All things are of God, who is the fountain and head of us all;and therefore we ought first to speak concerning God, of whom youthink otherwise than you ought, and Mangu desires to know whichof us hath the better belief." The arbitrators allowed this to bereasonable, and I proceeded: "We firmly believe that there is butone God in perfect unity; what believe you?" He said, "Fools saythere is but one God, but wise men say there are many. There aregreat lords in your country, and here is still a greater, evenMangu-khan. So it is of the Gods, as in divers countries thereare divers gods." To this I answered: "You make a bad comparisonbetween God and men; for in this way every mighty man might becalled a God in his own country." And when I meant to havedissolved the similitude, he prevented me, by asking, "Whatmanner of God is yours, who you say is but one?" I answered: "OurGod, beside whom there is no other, is omnipotent, and thereforeneedeth not the help of any other; whereas all have need of hishelp. It is not so with men, as no man can do all things;wherefore there must be many lords on earthy as no one cansupport all. God is omniscient, or knoweth all things; andtherefore hath no need of any counsellor, for all wisdom is fromhim. God is perfectly good; and needs not therefore any good fromus. In God we live and move and have our being. Such is our God,and you must not hold that there is any other." "It is not so,"said he; "for there is one highest in heaven, whose origin orgeneration we know not, and there are ten under him, and on earththey are infinite in number." To this he would have added otherfables. I asked him respecting the highest God, of whom he hadspoken, whether he were omnipotent, or if any of the inferiorGods were so? And fearing to answer this, he demanded, "Why,since our God was perfectly good, he had made the half of allthings evil?" To this I answered, that this was false; forwhosoever maketh any evil is no God, and all things whatsoeverare good. At this all the Tuiuians were astonished, and set itdown in writing as false or impossible. He then asked me, "Whencecometh evil?" "You ask amiss," said I, "for you ought first toinquire what evil is, before you ask whence it comes: But let usreturn to the first question, whether do you believe that any Godis omnipotent? and when that is discussed, I will answer whateveryou may demand." On this he sat a long time without speaking, andthe judges appointed by the khan commanded him to make answer. Atlength he said, that no God was omnipotent; on which all theSaracens broke out into great laughter. When silence wasrestored, I said, "None of your gods, therefore, can save you inall dangers, since chances may happen in which they have nopower. Besides, no man can serve two masters; how, therefore, canyou serve so many Gods in heaven and in earth?" The auditorydecreed that he should make answer to this, but he held hispeace.

When I was about to have propounded reasons to prove the truthof the divine essence, and to have explained the doctrine of theTrinity, the Nestorians alleged that I had said quite enough, andthat now they meant to speak; so I gave place to them. When,therefore, they would have disputed with the Saracens, these mensaid that they agreed to the truth of the law and the gospel ofthe Christian, and would not dispute with them in any thing, andeven confessed that they beg from God in their prayers that theymay die the death of the Christians. There was among theidolaters a priest of the sect of the Jugurs, who believe in oneGod, and yet make idols. With this man the Nestorians talkedmuch, shewing all things till the coming of Christ to judgment,and explaining the Trinity to him and the Saracens bysimilitudes. All of them hearkened to their harangue withoutattempting to make any contradiction; yet none of them said thatthey believed and would become Christians. The conference was nowbroken up. The Nestorians and Saracens sang together with a loudvoice, and the Tuinians held their peace; and afterwards they alldrank together most plentifully.

SECTION XXXVIII.

The last audience of Rubruquis with Mangu-khan, and theletter he received for the King of France.

On Whitsunday I was called into the presence of the khan, andbefore I went in, the goldsmiths son, who was my interpreter,informed me that it was determined I was to return to my owncountry, and advised me to say nothing against it. When I camebefore the khan I kneeled, and he asked me whether I said to hissecretaries that he was a Tuinian. To this I answered, "My lord,I said not so; but if it please your highness I will repeat whatI then said;" and I recited what I had spoken, as mentionedbefore, and he answered: "I thought well you said not so, for itwas a word you ought not to have spoken; but your interpreterhath ill rendered your words." Then, reaching forth the staff onwhich, he leaned towards me, he said, "be not afraid." To which Ianswered smiling, that if I had feared I should not have comehither. He then said, as if confessing his faith: "We Moalsbelieve that there is but one God, and we have an upright hearttowards him." "Then," said I, "may God grant you this mind, forwithout his gift it cannot be." He then added, "God hath given tothe hand divers fingers, and hath given many ways to man. He hathgiven the Scriptures to you, yet you keep them not. You certainlyfind not in the Scriptures that one of you should dispraiseanother?" "No," said I; "and I signified unto your highness fromthe beginning, that I would not contend with any one." "I speaknot," said he, "respecting you. In like manner, you find not inyour Scriptures, that a man ought to swerve from justice for thesake of money?" To this I answered, "That our Scriptures taughtno such evil doctrine, neither had I come into, these parts toget money, having even refused that which was freely offered tome." And one of the secretaries, then present, certified, that Ihad refused a jascot and a piece of silk. "I speak not of that,"said the khan; "God hath given you the Scriptures and you keepthem not; but he hath given to us soothsayers, and we do whatthey bid us, and live in peace." He drank four times, as I think,before he disclosed these things; and, while I waited attentivelyin expectation that he might disclose any thing fartherrespecting his faith, he began another subject, saying: "You havestayed a long time here, and it is my pleasure that you return.You have said that you dared not to carry my ambassadors withyou; will you carry my messenger, or my letters?" To this Ianswered, "If he would make me understand his words, and thatthey were put in writing, I would willingly carry them, to thebest of my power." He then asked if I would have gold or silver,or costly garments? I answered, that we received no such things;but not having wherewith to bear our expences, we could not getout of his country without his help. He then said, that he wouldprovide us in all necessaries through his country, and demandedhow far we would be brought. I said it were sufficient if he gaveus a pass into Armenia. To this he answered: "I will cause you tobe carried thither, after which look to yourself. There are twoeyes in one head, yet they both look to one object. You came herefrom Baatu, and therefore you must return by him." Havingrequested and obtained leave to speak, I addressed him thus:"Sir! we are not men of war, and desire that they who would mostjustly govern according to the will of God may have dominion inthe world. Our office is to teach men to live according to thelaw of God: For this, purpose we came into these parts, and wouldwillingly have remained here if it had been your pleasure; butsince you are pleased that we should return, I shall carry yourletters according to my power, in obedience to your commands. Irequest of your magnificence, that, when I have delivered yourletters, it may be lawful for me to come back into yourdominions; chiefly because you have servants of our nation atBalac, who want a priest to teach them and their children the lawof our religion, and I would willingly stay with them." He thenasked whether I knew that our lords would send me back to him? Tothis. I answered, "I know not what may be the purpose of mysovereign; but I have licence to go wherever I will, where it isneedful to preach the word of God, and it seems to me necessaryin these parts; wherefore, whether my lords send ambassadors ornot, if it is your pleasure, I will return." Then, after a longpause, as if musing, he said, "You have a lone way to go, makeyourself strong with food, that you may be enabled to endure thejourney." So he ordered them to give me drink, and I departedfrom his presence, and returned not again. From that time I couldhave no time nor place to expound to him the catholic faith; fora man must not speak before him, unless what he pleaseth to orderor allow, except he were an ambassador, who may speak what hewill, and they always demand of such whether he has any thingmore to say.

The soothsayers are the priests of the Mongals, and whateverthey command to be done is performed without delay. I shalldescribe their office, as I learnt it from the goldsmith andothers. Of these soothsayers there are great numbers, under thedirection of a chief priest, whose house is always about astone's throw in front of the great house of Mangu-khan, andunder his charge are all the chariots which carry idols. Theother soothsayers dwell behind the court, in places appointed forthem; and such as have confidence in their art come to consultthem from various distant parts. Some of them are skilful inastronomy, especially their chief, and they foretel eclipses ofthe sun and moon. When these are to happen, all the peopleprepare their food, that they may not be under the necessity ofgoing out of doors, and during the eclipse they play on variousinstruments of music, and set up loud shouts: when it is over,they indulge in feasting and carousing, to express their joy.

These soothsayers pretend to foretell lucky and unlucky daysfor all affairs; and the Tartars never levy an army, or undertakea war without their approbation. They had long since resumedtheir attack on Hungary, but that the soothsayers have alwaysopposed it. They make every thing which is sent to court passbetween two fires, as a purification, likewise, all the householdstuff belonging to a dead person must be purged in the samemanner; and, if any living creature drop down, or any thingwhatever fall to the ground during the ceremony, it becomes theproperty of the soothsayers, who, besides, have a certainproportion of every thing which they purify as their due. Therewas, therefore, a twofold reason why Friar Andrew Carpini wasmade to pass between the fires; both because he brought presents,and because Con-khan, for whom these had been brought, was dead:But as I brought nothing, this was not required of me.

Once on a time, some very costly furs were presented at thecourt of the Christian lady, whom Pascha, the good woman of Metzserved, and the soothsayers, in passing them between the fires,took more than was their due. Another woman, who had the custodyof the treasures belonging to that lady, accused them of thefraud to her mistress, who reproved them severely for theirconduct. Sometime afterwards the lady fell sick, and thesoothsayers accused the servant, who had detected their fraud, ofhaving bewitched her. She received the bastinado for seven dayssuccessively, and other tortures, to make her confess; and onhearing of her mistress's death, begged to be killed that shemight follow her, for that, in truth, she had never done her thesmallest injury. But, as she confessed nothing, Mangu-khancommanded that she should live. After this the soothsayersaccused the daughters nurse of the deceased lady, which nurse wasa Christian, and wife to the chief of the Nestorian priests. Sheand her servant-maid were tortured to make a confession, and themaid answered, that the nurse had sent her to receive responsesfrom a certain horse. The nurse also confessed that she had usedsome spells to procure the love of her lady, but had never doneany thing to hurt her. On being demanded to say whether herhusband knew of her incantations, she excused him, saying that hehad burnt the characters which she had made. Then she was put todeath, and the husband was sent to be judged by his bishop inKathay.

It happened that the principal wife of Mangu brought forth ason, and the soothsayers were brought to foretell the destiny ofthe infant, when they prophesied that he should live long andprosperously, and become a great lord; but he died in a few days.On being reproached for their falsehood, they said that the nurseof Cerina, who had been lately put to death, had killed the boy,and pretended to have seen her carrying him away. There were thenin the camp a son and daughter of the nurse, whom the ladyimmediately sent for in a rage, and ordered them to be put todeath. Some time afterwards this came to the ears of Mangu-khan,who was much enraged at the conduct of his wife. He caused theman to be beheaded who had slain the nurses son, and made hishead to be hung round the neck of the woman who had killed herdaughter, ordering her to be cudgelled with burning fire-brands,through among all the tents, and then put to death. He would alsohave put his wife to death if it had not been for the sake of thechildren he had by her; but he commanded her to be shut up forseven days without food, and went out from his court for a whole,moon.

After the feast of Pentecost, they began to prepare theirletters for your Majesty, and, in the mean time, the khanreturned to Caracarum, and held a great feast on the 15th ofJune, at which all the ambassadors were desired to be present,but I went to church to baptize the three children of a poorGerman. William the goldsmith was chief butler at this feast, ashe had the charge of the silver tree which poured out the drink.On this occasion the khan gave, during four successive days, acomplete suit of apparel each day to all his courtiers, every daya new colour; and he made them a speech, saying, "I have sent mybrothers afar into dangers among foreign nations; it shall beseen how you will conduct yourselves when I send you to extendthe boundaries of our empire."

At this time there was an ambassador at the court from thekhans of Bagdat, of whom it was reported, when Mangu declared hewould not grant them peace unless they would destroy all theirwarlike ammunition, that he answered, "We will do this when youpluck off all the hoofs from your horses." I saw there, also, theambassadors from a soldan of India, who brought with him eightleopards and ten hare-hounds who were taught to sit on a horsescroup in hunting, like the leopards. When I asked of them, theway to India, they pointed to the west, and they travelled withme, on our return, always westwards, for nearly three weeks. Ialso saw there the ambassador of the sultan of Turkey, whobrought rich presents to the khan. At length the letters beingready for your majesty, they called for me and explained them,and the following is their substance, so far as I couldunderstand them by my interpreter:

"The commandment of the Eternal GOD is this: As there is butone Eternal GOD in heaven, so upon earth let there be but oneLord, Zingis-khan, son of God, and Mangu-tinij[1]. This is theword which is spoken to you; whether Moals, Namans, Markets, orMusselmen; wherever man may hear or horse may go, cause it to beheard and understood, that such as have heard my commands and donot obey, or would levy an army against me, shall be as havingeyes and not seeing, as having hands and unable to hold anything, and as having feet, yet unable to walk.

[1] Explained as signifying the sound of iron,probably in allusion to his martial power.--E.

"This is the commandment of the Eternal GOD, and by the virtueof the Eternal GOD, the commandment of Mangu-khan, the greatemperor of the Moals, is given to Lodowick the French King, andto all other lords and priests, and to the great world of theFranks, that they understand my words and the commandments of theEternal GOD, made to Zingis-khan; neither but from Zingis-khanever came this commandment unto you[2].

[2] The obscurity of this passage isinexplicable.--E.

"A certain man, named David, came unto you as an ambassadorfrom the Moals, but he was a liar; and with him you sent yourambassador to Khen-khan. After Khen-khan was dead, yourambassador came to this court, and Charmis his wife sent you anassick cloth. But how could that wicked woman, more vile than adog, know matters appertaining to war and peace, and to settlethe great world in quiet?

"Those two monks who came from you to Sartach, were sent bySartach to Baatu; but as Mangu-khan is the greatest over theworld of the Moals, Baatu sent them unto us. And now that thegreat world of the Franks, and the priests, and monks, may livein peace and enjoy their goods, and that the commandment of GODmight be heard among you, we would have sent certain Moals as ourambassadors to you by your priests; but your messenger answered,that betwixt us and you there was a warlike nation, with many badmen and troublesome ways, so that they were afraid they could notbring our ambassadors in safety to you; but if we would deliverthem our letters, containing our commandments to King Lodowick,they engaged to carry them. For this cause we have not sent ourambassadors along with them; but we have sent you this, thecommandment of the Eternal GOD, by your priests. And this is thecommandment of the Eternal GOD, which we have given you tounderstand, and when you shall hear and believe it, if you willobey, send your ambassadors unto us, so that we may be satisfiedwhether you will have peace or war. When, by the power of theEternal GOD, the whole world shall be in unity, peace, and joy,from the rising of the sun to where it sets, then shall it appearwhat we will do. But if ye shall see and hear the commandment ofthe Eternal GOD, and will not hearken to or believe it, saying,our country is far off, our hills are strong, our sea is great;and in this confidence shall lead an army against us to know whatwe can do; he that made what is hard easy, and that which is faroff near, the Eternal GOD himself knows that alone."

While these things were going forwards, my companion heardthat we were to return by the wilderness to Baatu, under theguidance of a Moal, on which he ran to Bulgai, the chiefsecretary, signifying to him, by signs, that he should certainlydie if he went that way. On the day when we were to receive ourpass, which was a fortnight after the feast of St John, 8th July,the secretary said to him; it is the pleasure of Mangu, that yourcompanion shall return by Baatu, and as you are sick, you mayremain and shall be provided in necessaries till some ambassadorcome, with whom you may return more easily by a way where thereare villages. The friar answered "God grant the khan a long andprosperous life, I will remain." Then they brought us threegarments, saying, that as we refused gold or silver, and hadstayed long here, praying for the khan, he entreats that eachwould accept a single garment, that you may not depart emptyhanded.

SECTION XXXIX.

The departure of Rubruquis from the Court of Mangu-khan,and his journey by Saray and other places, to Tripoly inSyria.

Leaving the Leskar or moving camp of Mangu-khan, we came toCaracarum, and while we remained in the house of William Bouchierthe goldsmith, my guide brought ten jascots, five of which hedelivered to William, commanding him, from the khan, to expendthese for the use of the friar while he remained there, and heleft the other five with my interpreter for my subsistence by theway; for William had given them such instructions without myknowledge. I immediately changed one of the jascots into smallmoney, which I distributed among the poor Christians ofCaracarum. Another was spent in providing garments and othernecessaries for our journey. With the third my interpreter boughtseveral articles, of which he afterwards made some profit. Theother two we expended on the road, as, after we came into Persia,sufficient necessaries were nowhere given us. William, yourmajestys citizen and subject, sends you a girdle set with aprecious stone, which is worn in those parts as a defence againstthunder and lightning, and most humbly salutes you, alwayscommending you to God in his prayers.

My companion and I parted with tears, he remaining with masterWilliam, while I, with my interpreter, the guide, and oneservant, returned to the court of Baatu, our guide havingauthority to take a sheep once in four days, for the sustenanceof all four. From Caracarum to the court of Baatu our journeycontinued four months and ten days, during all which time wenever saw a town, or even the appearance of a single house,except one village, in which we did not even eat bread; nor inall that time did we ever rest, except one day, when we could notget horses. We returned, for the most part, by the same kind ofpeople through whom we had passed in going, and yet through othercountries, for we went in the winter, and returned in the summer,by the higher parts of the north, except that for fifteen daysjourney we had to travel along a certain river among themountains, where there was no lodging, except by the riverside[1]. Sometimes we had to go two, or even three days, with noother food than cosmos; and at one time we were in great danger,not being able to fall in with any people, our provisions allexhausted, and our horses quite tired.

[1] The reason of the change was, probably, that theymight fall in with the travelling Tartar camps, who wentnorthwards in the summer, that they might procure food and changeof horses. In going to Mangu, he appears to have travelledthrough Soongaria, and, in returning, through the country of theKalmaks. The river here mentioned may have been theBorotala.--E.

When we had travelled twenty days, I heard that the king ofArmenia had passed by on his journey to the court of Mangu. Inthe end of August I met with Sartach, who went to Mangu,accompanied by his wives and children, and with flocks and herds;yet the bulk of the families over whom he ruled, remained betweenthe Tanais and Etilia, or Volga. I sent my duty to him, sayingthat I would willingly have remained in his country, but thatMangu had ordered me to return and carry his letters. His answerwas, that I must obey the will of Mangu-khan.

I then asked Coiac to return our clothes and books. "What,"said he, "did you not bring them to Sartach?" I said that I hadcertainly brought them to Sartach, but had not given them, andput him in mind of what I had said on that former occasion. Tothis he answered "You say truth, and none can resist the truth. Ileft your goods with my father, who dwells in Saray, a new town,which Baatu has built on the eastern shore of the Volga, but ourpriests have some of your vestments." "If any thing please you,"said I, "keep it, so that you restore my books." I requestedletters from him to his father to restore my things; but he wasin haste to be gone, and said that we should alight at the trainof the ladies, which was near at hand, and he should send meSartachs answer. Though I was fearful he might deceive me, yet Idared not to contend with him. Late in the evening his messengercame with two coats, seemingly all of silk, saying that Sartachhad sent me these, one for myself, and that I might present theother to my king on his behalf. I answered, that I wore no suchgarments, but should present both to my king, in honour of hislord; and I now send both by the bearer of these letters. Hedelivered me also a letter for the father of Coiac, to restoreall that belonged to me.

We returned to the court of Baatu on the same day on which Ihad departed thence the year before, being the second day afterthe invention of the Holy Cross, 16th September 1254; and I foundour young men in health, though much afflicted with poverty.Gosset told me, they had perished for want, if the king ofArmenia had not comforted them, and recommended them to Sartach,for the Tartars believed I was dead, and even asked them if theycould keep oxen and milk mares; for if I had not returned, theyhad certainly been reduced to servitude. After this Baatu calledme before him, and made the letters which Mangu-khan sends you tobe interpreted to me. He likewise demanded what way I would go,whether by sea or land? I said the sea would be frozen, as whiterwas approaching, and I must, therefore, go by land; and believingyour majesty was still in Syria, I directed my journey to Persia,for if I had known you were in France, I would have gone throughHungary. We had to travel a month with Baatu before we couldobtain a guide. At length they appointed a Jugur, whounderstanding I would give him nothing, and that I wished to goby Armenia, caused our letters to be made for conducting me tothe soldan of Turkey, hoping he might there receive gifts. Weleft the moving court of Baatu fifteen days before All Saints,16th October, and went direct southwards for Sarai, alwayskeeping near the Volga, and there the Volga divides into threebranches or arms, each almost twice as large as the branch of theNile at Damieta. Besides these, it divides into four lesser arms,so that we had to pass seven branches of the river in boats: Uponthe middle branch, is a village called Sumerkant[2], without anywall, but which was besieged by the Tartars for eight yearsbefore they could gain possession, and had formerly cost theSaracens and Alani nine years; for though not fortified, it issurrounded by water. We there found a German and his wife, withwhom Gosset had lived all the preceding winter, by the order ofBaatu. On the east side of this river Baatu always travels, andSartach on the west, never going farther south than this place,as there is very good grass in great abundance. Coiacs father, onreceiving the letters of Sartach, restored my vestments, except asurplice, an albs, an almic trimmed with fine silk, a stole, agirdle, and a tualia adorned with gold embroidery. He gave meback, likewise, my silver plate, except the censer, and a smallbox for holding chrism, all of which were with the priest whoattended Sartach; and he returned my books, except our ladyspsalter, which he kept with my leave, as I could not deny him,for he said Sartach took great delight in it. A bible also, andan Arabian book worth thirty sultanies, were retained, and manyother things which I never recovered. Sarai, and the palace ofBaatu are on the east side of the river, and the valley throughwhich the arms of the river spread abroad, is more than sevenleagues in breadth.

[2] Sarni, Saray, or Sarey, seems to have been builton the Achtuba, or eastern branch of the Volga, near Zarewpod,where many traces of a large town, still exist. Sumerkent isunknown, but may have been near Astrachan, formerly namedHadschi-Aidar-Khan. But there are ruins of a town still existingon both sides of the Volga, which are now used for the purpose ofmaking saltpetre.--Forst.

After leaving Sarai, on the feast of All Saints, 1st November,we travelled south till the feast of St Martin, 11th November,when we came to the mountains of the Alani. In fifteen daystravel we found no people, except at one little village, whereone of the sons of Sartach resided, accompanied by manyfalconers, and falcons. For the first five days we did not meet asingle man, and were a whole day and night in great danger ofperishing for want of water. The Alani in some of the mountains,still hold out against the Tartars, so that two of every ten ofthe subjects of Sartach are obliged to guard certain passes inthe mountains of Dagistan, lest the Alanians carry away thecattle in the plain. There are likewise certain Mahometans calledLesghis in these mountains who are not subjugated, so that theTartars had to give us a guard of twenty men to see us safebeyond the Iron-gate. I was glad of this circ*mstance, as I hadnever seen the Tartars armed; and yet, of all those twenty, onlytwo had habergions, which they said they had procured from theAlani, who are excellent smiths and armourers. In my opinion, theTartars have small store of armour, except bows and arrows, andleather jackets; some have iron plates, and skull cups fromPersia, and I saw two at the court of Mangu armed with clumsy andunwieldy coats of rough hog-skin. We found one castle of theAlanians, which had been subdued by the Tartars, about whichthere were many vineyards, and there we drank wine for the firsttime. On the following day we reached Derbent or the Iron-gate,built by Alexander the Macedonian, on a small plain between thesea and the mountains, one end of the city reaching to the shore,while the other extends a mile in length to the top of themountain, on which is a strong castle. But the breadth of thecity scarcely exceeds a stones throw. It has very strong walls,and turrets of large polished stones, with no trenches; but theTartars have demolished the tops of the turrets, and the bulwarksof the walls.

Two days journey from Derbent we came to a city namedSamaron[3], in which there were many Jews; near which we sawwalls descending from the mountains to the sea; and leaving theway by the sea, because it turns to the east, we went up into thehigh countries, towards the south. Next day we passed through avalley, in which we could perceive the foundations of walls,stretching quite across between two mountains, which werethemselves quite impassable. All these walls were erected of oldby Alexander, for restraining the fierce nations of Scythianshepherds, inhabiting the wilderness, from invading the plainsand cities of the southern countries of Persia and Asia Minor.There were also other walls and inclosures inhabited by Jews.Next day we came to a great city called Samach[4]; and after thiswe entered the great plain of Moan, through which runs the riverCur or Cyrus, from which the Curgi or Curdi have their name, whomwe call Georgians, and which river passes through the middle ofTefflis, their capital. The Cur comes directly from the west,running east into the Caspian, and in it are excellent salmon[5].In the plains of Moan or Mogan we again met with Tartars; andthrough this plain flows the Araxes, which comes from Armenia theGreater, called likewise the land of Ararat. To the west of thatplain is Curgia[6], and in this plain the Crosmini, Krosmians orKorasmiens[7], formerly dwelt. Ganges or Kanja, a great city inthe entrance of the mountains towards Georgia, was their capital,and prevented the Georgians from coming down to plunder the plaincountry. We next came to a bridge of boats fastened together withgreat iron chains, for crossing the united stream of the Kur andAraxes.

[3] Schabran, or Schabiran.--E.

[4] Shamaki, in Shirvan.--E.

[5] The Karai, on which Tefflis or Tiblis stands,runs from the north-west; the Demur, Araz or Araxes from thewest; and both united form the Kur, which runs directly southinto the Caspian.--E.

[6] Georgia or Gurgistan is to the north-west of theplain of Mogan.--E.

[7] These were the ancestors of the present Turks,who laid the foundation of the Osmanian or Othoman empire. Kanja,called Ganges or Ganghe in the text, was theircapital.--Frost.

We proceeded thence, travelling up the river called ponteminidignatus Araxes, leaving Persia and the Caspian mountainson our left hand, towards the south, Curgia and the great sea onour right hand, towards the west[8]. Going all the waysouthwards[9], we passed through the meadows of Bacchu- khan, thegeneral of the Tartar army on the Araxes, who has likewisesubjugated the Curgi, the Turks, and the Persians. There isanother Tartar governor of Persia at Tauris, named Argon, whopresides over the tribute. But Mangu-khan has recalled both ofthese generals to make way for one of his brothers, as I formerlymentioned, who is to have the command in Persia. I was in thehouse of Bacchu, who gave me wine, while he drank cosmos; and,although it was the best new wine, I would rather have hadcosmos, if he had offered it, being more restorative for such ahalf starved wretch as I then was. We ascended the Araxes to itshead, and beyond the mountains, where it rises, is the good cityof Arsorum [10], which belongs to the Soldan of Turkey [11]. Whenwe departed from Bacchu, my guide went to Tauris to speak withArgon, and took my interpreter with him; but Bacchu caused me tobe carried to Naxuam [12], formerly the capital of a greatkingdom, and the greatest and fairest city in those parts, butthe Tartars have now made it a wilderness. There were formerlyeight hundred churches [13] of the Armenians here, which are nowreduced to two very small ones, in one of which I held myChristmas as well as I could, with our clerk Gosset. Next day thepriest of this church died, and a bishop with twelve monks camefrom the mountains to his funeral, for all the bishops of theArmenians are monks, and likewise most of those belonging to theGreeks [14].

[8] This passage is erroneous or corrupted. Intravelling westwards up the Araxes or Araz, he had Persia on hisleft, to the south, Georgia on his right, to the north, and theCaspian sea and mountains of the Iron-gate were leftbehind him, to the east andnorth-east.--E.

[9] Westwards.--E.

[10] Arz-roum on the Frat or Euphrates, perhaps acorruption of Arx- romanorum; as the Turks give the name of Roumto a part of Lesser Asia; and all the eastern nations call theConstantinopolitan empire Roum to this day.--E.

[11] Turkey, in these travels of Rubruquis, isalways, to be understood as referring to the Turkish dominion inAsia Minor, of which Konieh or Iconium was thecapital.--E.

[12] Nak-sivan, or Nag-jowan.--E.

[13] This must be an error foreighty.--E.

[14] Rubruquis here tells a long story of an Armenianprophecy, from which they expected to be freed from the iron yokeof the Tartars, by St Louis, not worthinserting.--E.

In the city of Naxuam I met a Catalan friar, of the order ofPredicants, named Barnard, who lives with a friar of the HolySepulchre, resident in Georgia, and possessing extensive landsthere. We were detained in Naxuam by the snow, till the 6thJanuary 1255, and came in four days to the country of Sabensa, aCurdish prince, heretofore powerful, but now tributary to theTartars, who destroyed all his warlike stores. Zacharias, thefather of Sabensa, possessed himself of all the country of theArmenians, from whence he drove out the Saracens. In this countrythere are many fine villages of true Christians, having churcheslike those of Europe; and every Armenian has in his house, in anhonourable place, a wooden hand holding a cross, before which alamp continually burns; and that which we do by holy water, theydo with frankincense, which they burn every evening through everycorner of the house, to drive away evil spirits. I eat withSabensa, and both he and his wife did me great reverence. His sonZachary, a wise and comely young man, asked me if your majestywould, entertain him; for though he has plenty of all things, heis so uneasy under the Tartar dominion, that he would ratherretire to a strange country, than endure their violent exactions.These people say they are true sons of the church, and if thePope would send them aid, they would bring all the neighbouringnations under subjection to the church of Rome.

From Naxuam we travelled in fifteen days into the country ofthe soldan of Turkey, to a castle called Marseugen, inhabited byArmenians, Curgians, and Greeks, the Turks only having thedominion. From that place, where we arrived on the first Sundayof Lent, till I got to Cyprus, eight days before the feast of StJohn the Baptist, I was forced to buy all our provisions. He whowas my guide procured horses for us, and took my money for thevictuals, which he put into his own pocket; for when in thefields, he took a sheep from any flock he saw by the way, withoutleave or ceremony. In the Feast of the Purification, 2d February,I was in a city named Ayni, belonging to Sabensa, in a strongsituation, having an hundred Armenian churches, and two mosques,and in it a Tartar officer resides.

At this place I met five preaching friars, four of whom camefrom Provence, and the fifth joined them in Syria. They had butone sickly boy who could speak Turkish and a little French, andthey had the Popes letters of request to Sartach, Baatu, andMangu-khan, that they might be suffered to continue in thecountry to preach the word of God. But when I had told them whatI had seen, and how I was sent back, they directed their journeyto Tefflis, where there were friars of their order, to consultwhat they should do. I said that they might pass into Tartarywith these letters, but they might lay their account with muchlabour, and would have to give an account of the motives of theirjourney; for having no other object but preaching, they would belittle cared for particularly as they had no ambassador. I neverheard what they did afterwards.

On the second Sunday in Lent we came to the head of theAraxes, and passing the mountains, we came to the Euphrates, bywhich we descended eight days journey, going to the west, till wecame to a castle named Camath or Kemac, where the Euphratestrends to the south, towards Halapia, or Aleppo. We here passedto the north-west side of the river, and went over very highmountains, and through deep snow, to the west. There was so greatan earthquake that year in this country, that in one city calledArsingan, ten thousand persons are said to have perished. Duringthree days journey we saw frequent gaps in the earth, which hadbeen cleft by the convulsion, and great heaps of earth which hadtumbled down from the mountains into the vallies. We passedthrough the valley where the soldan of the Turks was vanquishedby the Tartars, and a servant belonging to my guide, who was inthe Tartar army, said the Tartars did not exceed 10,000 men,whereas the soldan had 200,000 horse. In that plain there brokeout a great lake at the time of the earthquake, and it came intomy mind, that the earth opened her mouth to receive yet moreblood of the Saracens.

We remained in Sebasta, Siwas, or Sivas, a town of the LesserArmenia, in the Easter week, and on the succeeding Sunday we cameto Caesaria of Capadocia, now called Kaisarea. In about fifteendays, making short journeys, we came to Konieh or Iconium. Thisdelay arose in part from the difficulty of procuring horses, butchiefly because the guide chose to stop, often for three daystogether in one place, to negotiate his own affairs; and thoughmuch dissatisfied, I durst not complain, as he might have slainme and our servants, or sold us for slaves, and there was none tohinder it. I found many Franks at Iconium, and among these amerchant called Nicholas de Sancto Syrio, and his partnerBoniface de Molandino, who had a monopoly of all the alum ofTurkey from the soldan, and by this means they had raised theprice so much, that what used to sell for fifteen byzants, is nowsold for forty. My guide presented me to the soldan, who said hewould willingly get me conveyed to the sea of Armenia or Cilicia;but the above merchants knowing that the Turks made littleaccount of me, and that I was much distressed with my guide,caused me to be conveyed to Curruma[15], a port in the dominionsof the king of Armenia. Having remained here from before theAscension till after Pentecost, or near a fortnight, I heardthere were messengers arrived from the king to his father, and Iwent to the kings father to learn the news. I found himsurrounded by all his sons, except Barum Usin, who resided in acertain castle; and he told me that his son was on his return,and that Mangu-khan had much eased his tribute, granting him aprivilege that no ambassador should come into his country. Onthis the old man and all his sons made a banquet; and he causedme to be conveyed by sea to the haven called Aijax[16], whence Ipassed over into Cyprus, and at Nicosia I found our provincial,who, the same day, carried me with him to Antiochia [17], whichis in a very weak state; we were there on the feast of St Peter,and St Paul, 29th June; and from thence we went to Tripolis inSyria, where the chapter of our order was held, on the Assumptionof the Blessed Virgin, 15th August 1255.

[15] Kurke or Kurch.--E.

[16] Aias-cala, in the gulf of Aiasso, orScanderoon.--E.

[17] Antioch or Antakia.--E.

Our provincial is determined that I shall reside at Acon [18],and will not suffer me to come to your majesty, but commands meto write what I will by the bearer of these presents. I wouldwillingly see your highness, and some spiritual friends in yourkingdom; and beseech your majesty to write our provincial toallow me to go to you, and to return shortly again into the HolyLand.

[18] Ptolomais, or St John d'Acre.--E.

I would have your majesty to understand, that in Turkey, everytenth man is not a Mahometan; they are all Armenians and Greeks,and are ruled over by children. The soldan, who was conquered bythe Tartars, had a lawful wife of Iberia, by whom he had onefeeble son, whom he directed to succeed him as soldan. He hadanother son by a Greek concubine, whom he committed to theguardianship of a certain great admiral. The third he had by aTurkish woman, to whom many Turks and Turkomans having gathered,they proposed to have slain all the soldans sons by Christianmothers, and if successful, to have destroyed all the churches,and to compel all to become Mahometans on pain of death. But hewas overcome in battle, and many of his men slain. He recruitedhis army, and ventured a second battle, in which he was defeatedand taken prisoner, and still remains confined. Pacester, the sonof the Greek concubine, was soon afterwards made soldan, as theother was weak, whom they have sent to the Tartars; the kindredby the mothers side, of this son, such as the Iberians and Curds,are much dissatisfied at his being deprived; so that at this timea child ruleth in Turkey, having no treasure, few soldiers, andmany enemies. The son of Vestacius is weak, and at war with theson of Assan, who is likewise a child, and worn out with theservitude of the Tartars. If, therefore, an army of the churchwere now to come to the Holy Land, it were easy to subdue allthese countries, or to pass through them. The king of Hungaryhath not above 30,000 soldiers. From Cologne to Constantinopleare not above sixty days journey by waggons; and fromConstantinople not so many to the country of the king of Armenia.In old times, valiant men passed through all these countries andprospered; yet they had to contend with most valiant opponents,whom God hath now destroyed out of the earth. In this way we needfear no dangers of the sea, or the mercy of sailors, and theprice of freight would defray the expences by land. I sayconfidently, if our countrymen would go as the king of theTartars does, and would be contented with such victuals, theymight conquer the whole world.

It does not seem to me expedient, that any more friars shouldbe sent to the Tartars, in the way I went, or as the predicantfriars go. But if our lord the Pope were to send a bishop in anhonourable style, capable to answer their follies, he might speakunto them as he pleased; for they will hear whatever anambassador chooses to speak, and always demand if he will say anymore. But he ought to have many good interpreters, and ought tobe at large expences.

I have thus written to your highness, according to my weakpower and understanding, craving pardon from your clemency, formy superfluities or wants, or for any thing that may beindiscreetly or foolishly written, as from a man of littleunderstanding, not accustomed to write long histories. The peaceof God, which passeth all understanding, preserve your heart andfortify your mind.

CHAPTER X.

Travels of Haitho, Prince of Armenia, inTartary, in 1254. [1]

[1] Forst. Hist. of Voy. and Disc. in the North, p.113.

SECTION I.

Introduction.

Haitho, or Hatto, was the son of Livon, or Leon II., nephew ofHaitho I., king of Armenia Minor, in Lesser Asia. At the demiseof his father, he refused to accept of the crown, which heresigned in favour of his brother Thores or Theodore; butassisted him and his son and successor, Leon III., in all thewars and troubles in which they were engaged during many years.During the reign of his father in 1254, accompanied by his wifeand child, he travelled to the court of Mangu-khan, the greatsovereign of the Tartars or Mongals, for the purpose of obtainingan abatement of the tribute which had been imposed by theseconquerors upon his country, and appears to have been successfulin his negotiations. His journey into the east took place in thesame year in which Rubruquis was on his return; and while at thecourt or leskar of Sartach, he was of material service to two ofthe attendants of Rubruquis, who had been left at that station;and who but for his interference must have perished by famine, orwould have been reduced to slavery. Forster asserts that Haithomet with Rubruquis, who was then on his return home; but we havealready seen, in the account of the travels of Rubruquis, thatthe two travellers did not meet.

In the year 1305, when he must have become very old, Haithobecame a monk of the Praemonstratensian order at Episcopia inCyprus. He afterwards went to Poitou in France, where he dictatedin French to Nicholas Salconi, a history of the events which hadoccurred in the east from the first commencement of the conquestsof the Tartars or Mongals, including the reigns of Zingis-khanand his successors, to Mangu-khan inclusively; and a particularnarrative of the history of his own country, Armenia Minor, fromthe reign of Haitho I. to that of Leon II. both inclusive. Thisaccount Salconi translated into Latin in 1307, by order of thereigning Pope.

The travels of Haitho being perfectly contemporary with thoseof Rubruquis, are not sufficiently interesting to be hereinserted; and the historical part of his relations have noconnection with the plan of this work, which it would swellbeyond due bounds: But the following brief account of hisgeographical description of the east, as it existed in thethirteenth century, and as abstracted by J. R. Forster, in hisVoyages and Discoveries in the North, have been deemed worthy ofinsertion, together with the observations or commentaries of thatingenious author.

SECTION II.

Geographical Notices of the East in the Thirteenth Century,by Haitho.

§ 1. The empire of Kathay is one of the mostextensive, most opulent, and most populous in the world, and isentirely situated on the sea coast. The inhabitants have a veryhigh notion of their own superior intelligence, which theyexpress by saying, that they only of all the people on earth havetwo eyes; to the Latins they allow one, andconsider all other nations as blind. The Kathayans have smalleyes and no beards. Their money consists of small square piecesof paper, impressed with the seal of their emperor. To the west,this empire is bounded by that of the Tarsae; to the north by thedesert of Belgian; and to the south by the sea, in which thereare innumerable islands. The inhabitants of Kathay areexceedingly skilful and ingenious in all works of art and inmanufactures, but are of a very timorous disposition. In theforegoing description, and in the traits of character, the empireand inhabitants of northern China are distinctlyindicated.--Forst.

§ 2. The empire of Tarsa is divided into threeprovinces, each of which has a sovereign who assumes the title ofKing. The inhabitants are called Jogur, the Jugur or Uigur ofother authors. They are divided into many tribes, ten of whom areChristians, and the rest heathens. They abstain from everyarticle of food which has ever had life, and drink no wine, butraise abundance of corn. Their towns are very pleasant, andcontain great numbers of idol temples. They are not inclined towar, but learn all arts and sciences with great facility, andhave a particular manner of writing, which is adopted by all theneighbouring nations. To the east, this country is bounded byKathay, to the west by Turkestan, to the north by an extensivedesert, and to the south by a very rich province, named Sym orPeim, in which diamonds are found, and which, is situated betweenKathay and India. It appears, that Haitho here describes thecountry of the Uigurs in conjunction with that of the Gete: buthow it came to receive the name of Tarsae I knownot--Forst.

§ 3. Turkestan is bounded on the east by theempire of Tarsae, to the west by Khorasmin or Khuaresm, and tothe south it extends to the desert which forms the northernfrontier of India. In this country there are few good towns; butmany extensive plains, which afford excellent pasturage tocattle, and the inhabitants are almost universally shepherds andtenders of cattle. They dwell mostly in tents, and in huts whichcan be transported from place to place. They cultivate only asmall quantity of corn, and have no wine. Their drink is beer andmilk, and they subsist upon meat with rice and millet. The peopleare known by the name of Turks, and are of the Mahometanreligion. Such of them as live in towns use the Arabian letters.Ocerra or Otrar is the capital of this country.

§ 4. Khorasmin or Khuaresm, is a populous,pleasant, and fertile country, containing many good and strongtowns, the capital being Khorasme. The country produces abundanceof corn, and very little wine. This empire borders on a desert ofan hundred days journey in extent. To the west is the Caspiansea, to the north Kumania, and to the east Turkestan. Theinhabitants are heathens, without letters or laws. The Soldiniare the most intrepid of warriors; have a particular language oftheir own, for which they employ the Greek characters in writing;and they follow the usages and rites of the Greek church, beingsubject in spirituals to the Patriarch of Antioch.

According to Ulug-Beg, who was himself prince of this country,the capital of Khuaresm is the city of Korkang, and no authorexcept Haitho has ever mentioned a place called Khorasme. TheSoldini, whom he mentions as Christians of the Greek church, areunknown; perhaps they may have been theSogdians.--Forst.

§ 5. Kumania is of vast extent; but, owing to theinclemency of its climate, is very thinly inhabited. In someparts, the cold is so intense in winter, that neither man norbeast can remain in them; and in other parts the heat is soextreme, and they are so infested with swarms of flies, as to bequite intolerable. The whole country is flat and level, andwithout woods, except some orchards near the towns. Theinhabitants live in tents, and use the dung of their cattle asfuel. It is bounded on the east by a desert towards Khorasmia; tothe west is the great sea, or Euxine, and the sea of Tenue,Tanna, or Azof; to the north, is the empire of Kaffia or Kiow;and to the south it extends to the great river Etile or Wolga,which passes the capital. This river is frozen over every year,and men and beasts walk upon the ice as on dry land; along thebanks of the river are many small trees; and on the other side ofthe river, the country is inhabited by a people, who, though notKumanians, are subject to the Khan. Some live towards the highmountains of Cocas or Caucasus, in which there are white kites.This range of mountains extends between the Black Sea or Euxineon the west, and the Caspian on the east; this latter has noconnection with the ocean, but is a vast lake called a sea, onaccount of its extent, being the largest lake in the world, andcontains a great quantity of excellent fish. It divides Asia intotwo parts; that to the east being called Lower Asia, andthat to the west Greater Asia. In the Caspian mountains,abundance of buffalos and many other wild beasts are found. Inthis sea there are many islands, to which numerous birds resortto breed; particularly the falcons called Pegrim[1],Esmetliones[2], and Bousacei[3], and many otherbirds not to be found elsewhere. The largest town of Kumania isSara or Saray, which was large and of great renown, but has beenravaged, and almost entirely destroyed by the Tartars, who tookit by storm.

[1] Faucon Pelerin, the PilgrimFalcon,--Forst.

[2] Esmerliones, or Merlins.--Forst.

[3] The Bondree and Sacre, or the Honey-buzzard andSacre.--Forst.

It is obvious, that Haitho here describes that part of theempire of the Mongals which was subject to Baatu-khan. The Euxineor Black Sea, he calls the Great Sea. The sea of Tenue isthat of Tanna or Azof, the town at the mouth of the Tanais or Donhaving been known by both of these names, the former evidentlyderived from the ancient name of the river, or the river from thetown, and of which the modern name Don is a mere corruption. Theempire of Kaffia is obviously that of Kiow, Kiovia, or Kiavia,long the capital of the Russian empire, and the residence of theczars or great dukes.--Forst.

§ 6. Beyond the great mountain of Belgian or Bilkhan, theTartars lived formerly without religion, or the knowledge ofletters, being chiefly employed in tending their flocks; and wereso far from warlike, that they readily submitted to pay tributeto any neighbouring prince who made the demand. All the tribes ofthe Tartars were known by the name of Mogles, Moguls or Mongals;and in process of time they increased so much, as to form sevenpopulous independent nations. The first was called Tartar, aftera province of that name, which was their original habitation; thesecond Tangot, Tangut, or Tongusians; the third Kunat; the fourthJalair or Thalair; the fifth Sonich; the sixth Monghi; and theseventh Tabeth. Prompted by a vision and a command from God, thechiefs of these nations chose Changi or Zinghis to be theirsovereign ruler or Great Khan; and we are told that when he camedown from the mountains of Belgian, the sea withdrew nine feet,and made a way for him where there was none before.

This seems to be the same history with that of Irganekon,which is also related by Abulgasi. The mountain Belgian must belooked for in the environs of lake Balehas, in the country ofOrganum or Irganekon. According to the Nighiaristan, a collectionof oriental history, the Turkomanni likewise came from a placecalled Belgian or Bilkhan.--Forst.

CHAPTER XI.

Travels of Marco Polo, through Tartary,China, the Islands of India, and most of Asia, from A. D. 1260 to1295 .[1]

[1] Harris, I, 593. Forst. Voy. and Disc. p. 117.Modern Geogr. II. xvi.

Nicolo Polo, the father of this intelligent early traveller,and Maffei Polo his uncle, were Venetian gentlemen engaged incommerce; and appear to have gone into the east, in theprosecution of their trade, in the year 1260. They resided farsome time at the court of Kublai-khan, the great emperor of theMongals or Tartars; and, returning to Venice in 1269, they foundthat the wife of Nicolo had died during their absence, leaving ason Marco, the author of the following travels, of whom she waspregnant at the time of their departure. These circ*mstances aredetailed in the first section of this chapter, but the date whichhas been usually assigned for the commencement of this firstjourney, 1250, is evidently corrupted, as will appear from thefollowing considerations, derived from a comparison of thechronology of the kings and princes, who are mentioned in thetravels as reigning at the time. The high probability is, thatthe obvious mistake, of assuming the year 1250 as the era of thefirst journey, arose from a careless substitution of the figure 5for 6 in transcription.

Assuming the corrected date of 1260 as the commencement of thefirst journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, this will appear to beconsonant with the chronology of the princes with whose reignstheir travels were connected; while the date of 1250, adopted byRamusio and Muller, is totally irreconcilable with the truth ofhistory. They remained one year at the leskar or camp ofBereke-khan, whence they travelled into Bochara, where theytarried three years. From thence they spent one year on theirjourney to the court of Kublai-khan, and were three years ontheir journey back to Venice. But as they remained some time atthe residence of Kublai-khan, one year may be allowed for thatcirc*mstance; and this first journey may therefore be allowed tohave occupied nine years in all.

Kublai-khan reigned supreme emperor of the Mongals from 1259to 1294, in which last year he died at eighty years of age. If,therefore, Nicolo and Maffei had set out upon their first journeyin 1250, they must have arrived at the imperial residence ofCambalu, or Pekin, in 1255, at the latest, or four years beforeKublai-khan ascended the throne. Their first journey commencedwhile Baldwin II. was emperor of Constantinople, who reigned from1234 to 1261. The khan of Kiptschak, or the western division ofthe vast empire of the Mongals, at the time of this journey, wasBereke, who ruled from 1256 to 1266. Holagu-khan, who was then atwar with Bereke, did not begin to reign till 1258. Hence itfollows, that they could not have commenced their first journeyat the very earliest before 1258, or 1259 rather; as it is not tobe supposed that Holagu would enter upon a dangerous war in thefirst year of his reign. Upon the whole, therefore, the date of1260, for the commencement of the first journey, as alreadyobserved, is perfectly consistent with the chronology ofhistory.

The year of their return to Venice, 1269, is agreed upon onall hands; and as Marco was born in the first year of theirabsence, he would then be about nine years of age. Ramusio, whodates the commencement of the first journey in 1250, supposesMarco to have been fifteen years of age at the return of hisfather and uncle, which is absurd; as, if the era assumed byRamusio were possibly true, he must then have been in hisnineteenth year.

According to the opinion of Mr J. R. Forster, the commencementof the second journey in which Marco was engaged, must have beenin 1271; and he founds this opinion on the circ*mstance, thatGregory IX. had then been elected pope, from whom they carriedletters for Kublai-khan. But it will appear from the travelsthemselves, that the three Polos had commenced their journeypreviously to the election of that sovereign pontiff, and thatthey were detained some time in Armenia, in consequence of anexpress sent after them for the purpose, that they might therewait for his final instructions. They may, therefore, havecommenced this second journey in 1270. We only know, however,that they set out from Venice for a second journey into Tartary,soon after their return from the first, in 1269; and that theycarried young Marco along with them. On his appearance at thecourt of Cambalu, Kublai-khan took a fancy to the young Venetian,and caused him to be instructed in four of the principallanguages which were spoken in the extensive dominions of theMongals. Marco was afterwards employed by the khan, for aconsiderable number of years, in several important affairs, aswill appear in the relation of his travels.

At length, the three Polos returned to Venice, in 1295, afteran absence of twenty-five or twenty-six years, during which longperiod they had never been heard of by their friends andcountrymen, seventeen years of which Marco had been employed inthe service of the great khan. On their return to their own housein Venice, they were entirely forgotten by their relations andformer acquaintances, and had considerable difficulty toestablish their identity, and to get themselves recognized bytheir family, and were obliged to use extraordinary means torecover the respect which was their due, and an acknowledgementof their name, family, and rank, the particulars of which will befound in the travels themselves.

About three years after the return of these adventuroustravellers, hostilities arose between the republics of Genoa andVenice. The Genoese admiral, Lampa Doria, came to the island ofCurzola with a fleet of seventy gallies, to oppose whom, theVenetians fitted out a great naval force under Andrea Dandolo,under whom Marco Polo had the command of a galley. The Venetianswere totally defeated in a great naval engagement, with the lossof their admiral and eighty-five ships, and Marco Polo had themisfortune to be among the number of the prisoners.

Harris alleges that he remained a prisoner during severalyears, in spite of every offer of ransom that was made for hisliberation. But in this he must have mistaken, or been misled bythe authorities which he trusted to, as peace was concluded in1299, the year immediately subsequent to the naval engagement inwhich he was made prisoner. While in prison at Genoa, many of theyoung nobility are said to have resorted to Marco, to listen tothe recital of his wonderful travels and surprizing adventures;and they are said to have prevailed upon him to send to Venicefor the notes which he had drawn up during his peregrinations, bymeans of which the following relation is said to have beenwritten in Latin from has dictation. From the original Latin, theaccount of his travels was afterwards translated into Italian;and from this again, abridgements were afterwards made in Latinand diffused over Europe.

According to Baretti[2], the travels of Marco Polo weredictated by him in 1299, while in the prison of Genoa, to oneRustigielo, an inhabitant of Pisa, who was his fellow prisoner.They were afterwards published in Italian, and subsequentlytranslated into Latin by Pessuri, a Dominican monk of Bologna.Copies of the original manuscript, though written in the Venetiandialect, which is extremely different from the Tuscan or pureItalian, were multiplied with great rapidity in all parts ofItaly, and even made their way into France and Germany. From oneor more of these, corrupted by the carelessness or ignorance oftranscribers, some of whom may have abridged the work, or mayeven have interpolated it from other sources, a thing quitecommon before the invention of printing, the Latin translationsmay have been made and circulated over Europe. Ramusio, an earlyeditor of voyages and travels, published these travels in anItalian translation from the Latin, which he erroneously supposedto have been the original dictation of Marco to Rustigielo; andmany other editions have been published in the various languagesof Europe, but all from one or other of these corruptedtranscripts or translations.

[2] Ital Libr. p. iv.

A manuscript of the travels of Marco polo, in the Venetiandialect, was long preserved by the Soranza family at Venice, butwhether this now exists, or has ever been published, is unknown.Mr Pinkerton informs us [3], that a genuine edition of thesetravels, probably from the original MS. either of Marco himself,after his return from Genoa, or from that of his amanuensisRustigielo, was published at Trevigi in 1590, in the dialect ofVenice, which has hitherto escaped the attention of all editorsand commentators. This curious publication is often worded in thenames of all the three travellers, father, uncle, and son; butwhen the peculiar travels of Marco are indicated, his name onlyis employed. In the former case, the language runs thus,"We, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, have heard, seen, andknow, &c.:" In the latter, "I Marco was in that place, andsaw, &c." In this Venetian edition, the names of places andpersons are often widely different from those in the othereditions, and probably more genuine and correct. But thatpublication being at present inaccessible, we are under thenecessity of being contented with the edition of Harris, in whichhe professes to have carefully collated the edition of Ramusiowith most of the other translations, and with an original MS. inthe royal library of Prussia. This latter labour, however, heseems to have taken entirely upon trust from Muller, a Germaneditor and translator, probably through the intermediation ofBergeron, an early French editor of voyages and travels. The onlyfreedom which has been assumed in the present edition is, bydividing it into sections for more ready consultation andreference, and by the addition of explanatory notes from varioussources.

[3] Mod. Geogr. II. xvi.

Marco Polo is the chief of all the early modern discoverers;having been the first who communicated to Europe any distinctideas of the immense regions of Asia, from the Euxine eastwards,through the vast extent of Tartary to China and Japan; and thevery first author who has made any mention of that distantinsular sovereignty. Even Columbus is supposed, with someconsiderable probability, to have been prompted to hisenterprize, which ended in the discovery of America, by the studyof these travels; believing, that by a western course through theunexplored Atlantic, he should find a comparatively short passageto those eastern regions of the Indies, which Polo had visited,described, or indicated. In this view he was, however, so farmisled in his estimation of the distance, by the erroneouslyspread-out longitudes of Ptolomy, bringing these regions muchfarther towards the east, and consequently nearer by the west,than their actual situation; and was stopped in his westerncourse, by the important and unexpected discovery of manyislands, and a vast interposed continent; which, frompreconceived theory, he named the West Indies.

Such is the account of these travels which has been handeddown to us from various sources, and which their importance andintrinsic merit have induced us to record at some length. Ofthese adventurous travellers, some notices yet remain, which maybe worthy of being preserved. Signior Maffio Polo, the uncle ofMarco, became a magistrate of Venice, and lived for some time inmuch respect among his countrymen. Nicolo Polo, the father ofMarco, is said to have married during the captivity of his son atGenoa, and to have left three children by this second marriage.Marco himself married after his return to Venice from Genoa, andleft two daughters, Moretta and Fantina, but had no male issue.He is said to have received among his countrymen the name ofMarco Millioni, because he and his family had acquired a fortuneof a million of ducats in the east. He died as he had lived,universally beloved and respected by all who knew him; for, withthe advantages of birth and fortune, he was humble and beneficentand employed his great riches, and the interest he possessed inthe state, only to do good.

SECTION I.

Introductory General Account of the whole Travels, from thecommencement of the first Journey of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, in1260, to their final return along with Marco to Venice, in1295.

(Illustration: MAP OF THE Eastern part of Tartary &ADJACENT COUNTRIES)

In the year 1260, when Baldwin was emperor of Continople, twobrothers of an illustrious family at Venice, Nicolo and MaffeiPolo, embarked in a vessel which was laden with a variousassortment of merchandize on their own account; and, aftertraversing the Mediterranean and Bosphoros with a fair wind, theyarrived in safety at Constantinople. Having remained for sometime in the imperial city, they crossed the Great Sea toSoldadia[1], from thence they went to the court of a Tartarprince, named Barha[2], who lived in the towns of Bolgara andAlsara[3]. To this prince they shewed the fine jewels which theyhad brought for sale, and presented him with some of the mostvaluable. He was far from ungrateful for their presents, which hekindly accepted, and for which he made them returns of greatervalue. Having remained a whole year at his court, they weredesirous of returning to Venice; but before they had anyopportunity of departing, a war broke out between Barha andanother Tartar prince named Arau[4]; the armies of these rivalscame to a battle, in which Barha was defeated, and obliged tofly. By this unfortunate incident, the roads to the westwardsbecame quite unsafe for the journey of the Polos, and they wereadvised to make a large circuit round the north and eastfrontiers of the dominions of Barha; and by which route they madetheir escape from the seat of war to Guthacam, a town on theTygris[5]. A little farther on, they crossed the Gihon, one ofthe four rivers of Paradise, and travelled afterwards forseventeen days in the desert, in which they saw neither town,castle, nor village, and only a few Tartars dwelling in huts ortents. Leaving the desert, they came to a considerable city,named Bochara, on the frontiers of Persia, then the residence ofa prince called Barach[6], who gave them a good reception; andbeing unable to proceed any farther, on account of the great warswhich then raged among the Tartars, they remained there for threeyears.

[1] The Black-Sea, or Euxine, is here called theGreat Sea. Soldadia, Soldaia, or Sudak, was a city in theCrimea, a little to the west of Caffa.--Forst.

[2] Barha or Barcha, more properly Bereke-khan, whor*igned from 1256 to 1266.--E.

[3] Bolgara is the town of Bolgari, the capital ofBulgaria, which subsisted from 1161 to 1578. Alsara is Al-seray,which was built by Baatu-khan, on the Achtuba, a branch of theVolga.--Forst.

[4] Probably Holagu-khan, to whom all Persia was insubjection, quite to Syria.--Forst.

[5] Ukakah, Grikhata, Khorkang, or Urghenz on theGihon.--Forst.

[6] Bereke-khan.--Forst.

At that time there came to Bochara a person of distinction,who was going as ambassador from Holagu to Kublai-khan, the greatemperor of all the Tartars, who resided in the remotest countriesof the earth, betwixt the north-east and the east. Meeting withthe brothers, who had now become well versed in the Tartarianlanguage, he was much taken with their conversation, andpersuaded them to accompany him to the court of the great khan,knowing that he should gratify him in this circ*mstance, andpromised them that they should be received with great honour, andgratified with large rewards. They were well aware that it wasutterly impossible for them to return home at this period,without the most imminent danger, and agreed to this proposal,taking with them some Christian servants whom they had broughtfrom Venice; and travelling toward the north-east, they employeda whole year on the journey, being often obliged to wait themelting of the snow, and the decreasing of the floods, whichobstructed their passage.

At length they arrived at the residence of the great khan, andbeing brought into his presence, were most courteously received,and treated with great distinction. He interrogated them muchconcerning many things relative to the countries of the west;particularly respecting the Roman emperor[7], and the other kingsand princes of Europe; the forms of their different governments,the nature, number and discipline of their military force; howpeace, justice and concord were established and maintained amongthem; of the manners and customs of the different Europeannations; and concerning the pope, the discipline of the church,and the tenets of the Christian faith. To all this Nicolo andMaffei made proper and suitable replies, as prudent and wise men,declaring the truth, and speaking orderly in the Tartarianlanguage; with which the emperor was well satisfied, as heacquired a knowledge of the affairs of the Europeans; insomuchthat he often commanded them to be brought into his presence.

[7] This probably refers to the Constantinopolitan orGreek emperor; his dominions being called Roum in the eastto the present day.--E.

After some time, Kublai-khan having consulted with his greatlords, informed them, that he was desirous to send them as hisambassadors to the pope of the Romans, accompanied by one of hislords named Chogatal[8], requesting that he would send an hundredmen, learned in the Christian religion, to his courts, that theymight instruct his wise men, that the faith of the Christians waspreferable to all other sects, being the only way of salvation;that the gods of the Tartars were devils, and that they and otherpeople of the east were deceived in the worship of these gods. Helikewise commanded them, on their return from Jerusalem, to bringhim some of the oil from the lamp which burns before thesepulchre of our Lord Jesus Christ, to whom the emperor had greatdevotion, believing him to be the true God. Yielding duereverence to the great khan, they promised faithfully to executethe charge which he had committed to them, and to present to thepope the letters in the Tartarian language, which he gave themfor that purpose. According to the custom of the empire, thegreat khan caused to be given them a golden tablet, engraven andsigned with the mark or signet of the khan, in virtue of which,instead of a passport, the bearers were entitled to be everywhereconveyed in safety through dangerous places, by the governors ofprovinces and cities, throughout the whole empire, having theirexpences everywhere defrayed, and should be furnished withwhatever was needful for them and their attendants in all places,and for as long as they might have occasion to stay.

[8] In different editions this name is corruptlywritten Gogoka, Gogatal, Cogatal, and Chogatal.--E.

Taking their leave of the great khan, they set out upon thejourney into the west, carrying with them the letters to thepope, and the golden tablet. After travelling twenty days, theTartar lord, who was associated in their embassy to the pope,fell grievously sick; on which, having consulted upon what wasbest to be done, they resolved to leave him, and to continuetheir journey, They were everywhere courteously received, throughthe authority of the imperial tablet; yet they were oftencompelled to wait, by the overflowing of the rivers, in thecourse of their journey, so that they spent three years beforethey reached the port in the country of the Armenians, calledGiazza [9]. From thence they proceeded to Acre [10], where theyarrived in the month of April 1269. On their arrival at Acre,they were informed of the death of Pope Clement IV., by TibaldoVisconti of Placentia, the papal legate who then resided in thatplace. They related to him what had befallen them, and declaredwhat commission they had received from the great khan to thepope, and he advised to wait the creation of a new pope, to whomthey might deliver their letters. Upon this they took shippingfor Venice, by the way of Negropont, intending to visit theirfriends and relations, and to remain there until a new popeshould be elected. On their arrival, Nicolo found that his wifewas dead, whom he had left pregnant at his departure; but thatshe had left a son, now nineteen [11] years of age, who is thisvery Marco, the author of this book, in which he will makemanifest all those things which he has seen in his travels.

[9] Otherwise called Glaza and Galza, but moreproperly Al-Ajassa, on the south-east extremity of the Euxine orBlack-sea.--Forst.

[10] Acon, or more properly Akko. It is not easy toconceive what should have taken them so much out of their way asAcre; unless they could not procure shipping at Giazza, andtravelled therefore by land through Asia Minor and Syria; or thatthey intended here to procure the holy oil for thekhan.--E.

[11] This is an error in transcription, and it hasbeen already noticed in the introduction to these travels, thatMarco could not then have exceeded the ninth year of hisage.--E.

The election of the pope was deferred two years, and the Polosbecame afraid least the great khan might be displeased at theirdelay. They went therefore back to Acre, carrying Marco alongwith them; and having gone to Jerusalem for the holy oilrequested by Kublai, they received letters from the legate,testifying their fidelity to the great khan, and that a pope wasnot yet chosen. They then set out on their journey, and went toGiazza, in Armenia. In the mean time letters came from theCardinals to the legate Visconti, declaring that he was electedpope, and he assumed the name of Gregory. On this the new popesent messengers to the Polos to call them back, or to delay theirdeparture from Armenia until he might prepare other letters forthem, to present to the khan in his name, and to inform them,that he meant to join two friars predicants in commission withthem, Nicolo of Vicenza and Guelmo of Tripoli, men of learningand discretion. The Polos accordingly remained at Giazza, wherethese two monks arrived with letters and presents of great valuefor the khan, and furnished with ample powers and privileges, andauthority to ordain priests and bishops, and to grant absolutionin all cases, as fully as if the pope were present. But learningthat the sultan of Babylon, Bentiochdas[12], was leading a greatarmy to invade Armenia, and where he committed the most cruelravages, the two friars became afraid of themselves, anddelivered the letters and presents of the pope to Nicolo, Maffei,and Marco; and to avoid the fatigues of the ways and the dangersof war, they remained with the master of the temple, then atGiazza, and returned with him to Acre.

[12] Bibars el Bentochdari, sultan of Kahira orCairo, in Egypt, often called Babylon.--Forst.

But the three Venetians proceeded boldly through many dangersand difficulties, and at length, after a journey of three yearsand a half, they arrived at the great city of Clemenisu[13]. Inthis lengthened journey they had often long stoppages, on accountof the deep snow and extreme cold, and on occasion of floods andinundations. When the khan heard of their approach, though yet ata great distance, he sent messengers forty days journey to meetthem, that they might be conducted with all honour, and toprovide them with every accommodation during the remainder oftheir journey. On their arrival at the court, and beingintroduced into the presence, they prostrated themselves beforethe khan on their faces, according to the customary form ofreverence; and being commanded to rise, were most graciouslyreceived. The khan then demanded an account of the many dangersthrough which they had passed by the way, and of theirproceedings with the pope of the Romans. All this they distinctlyrelated, and delivered to him the letters and presents from thepope, with which the khan was well pleased, and gave them greatcommendations for their care and fidelity. They presented to himalso the oil which they had brought from the holy sepulchre ofthe Lord at Jerusalem, which he reverently received, and gaveorders that it should be honourably preserved. The khan inquiredwho Marco was? On which Nicolo replied, "He is your majesty'sservant, and my son." The khan graciously received him with afriendly countenance and had him taught to write among hishonourable courtiers; whereupon he was much respected by all thecourt, and in a little time made himself familiar with thecustoms of the Tartars, and learned to read and write fourdifferent languages. After some time the great khan, to makeexperience of his capacity, sent Marco upon a mission or embassy,to a great city called Carachan or Zarazan, at such a distance ashe could scarcely travel in six months. He executed thecommission with which he had been entrusted with judgment anddiscretion, and perfectly to the satisfaction of the khan: Andknowing that the khan would be delighted with an account of allthe novelties in the places through which he had to pass, hediligently inquired into the manners and customs of the people,the conditions of the countries, and every thing worthy of beingremarked, making a memorial of all he knew or saw, which hepresented to the great khan for his information and amusem*nt. Bythis means he got so much into the favour of the khan, thatduring the twenty-six years which he continued in his service, hewas continually sent through all his realms and dependencies,chiefly on affairs of government, but sometimes on his ownprivate matters, by the khan's orders; and this is the truereason that he should have seen and learnt so many particularsrelating to the east, as he has declared in these hismemoirs.

[13] Chambalu, or Khan-balu, or the city of the Khan,now Peking.--Forst.

After staying many years in the court of the great khan, andhaving become very rich in jewels of great value, and consideringthat if the khan, who was now grown very old, should happen todie, they should never be able to return home; the Venetiansbecame exceedingly anxious to be permitted to return to their owncountry. Wherefore, one day that he found the khan inextraordinary good humour, Nicolo begged permission to returnhome with his family. At this the Khan was much displeased, andasked what could induce them to undertake so long and dangerous ajourney; adding, that if they were in want of riches, he wouldgratify their utmost wishes, by bestowing upon them twice as muchas they possessed; but out of pure affection, he refused to givethem leave to depart.

It happened, however, not long after this, that a king of theIndies named Argon, sent three of his counsellors, named Ulatai,Apusca, and Coza, as ambassadors to Kublai-khan on the followingoccasion. Bolgana, the wife of Argon, was lately dead, and on herdeath-bed had requested of her husband that he should choose awife from among her relations in Kathay. Kubla yielded to thisrequest, and chose a fair young maiden of seventeen years of age,named Cogalin[14], who was of the family of the late queenBolgana, and determined to send her to Argon. The ambassadorsdeparted with their charge, and journeyed eight months the sameway they had come to the court of Kublai; but found bloody warsraging among the Tartars, insomuch, that they were constrained toreturn and to acquaint the great khan with the impossibility oftheir proceeding home in that road. In the mean time, Marco hadreturned from the Indies, where he had been employed with certainships in the service of the khan, to whom he had reported thesingularities of the places which he had visited, and thefacility of intercourse by sea between Kathay and the Indies.This came to the knowledge of the ambassadors, who conferred withthe Venetians on the subject; and it was agreed, that theambassadors and the young queen should go to the great khan, andbeg permission to return by sea, and should request to have thethree Europeans, who were skilful in sea affairs, to accompanyand conduct them to the dominions of king Argon. The great khanwas much dissatisfied with this proposal, yet, at the earnestentreaty of the ambassadors, he at length gave his consent; andcalling Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco into his presence, after muchdemonstration of his favour and affection, he made them promiseto return to him after they had spent some time in Christendomamong their relations; and he caused a tablet of gold to be giventhem, on which his commands were engraven for their liberty,security, and free passage throughout all his dominions, and thatall the expences of them and their attendants should be defrayed,providing them everywhere with guides and escorts, wherenecessary. He authorized them also to act as his ambassadors tothe pope, and the kings of France and Spain, and all otherChristian princes.

[14] Called likewise; Kogatin, Gogatin, and Gogongin,in the different transcripts of these travels.--E.

The khan ordered fourteen ships to be prepared for the voyage,each having four masts, and carrying nine sails. Four or five ofthese were so large as to have from 250 to 260 mariners in each,but the rest were smaller. In this fleet the queen and theambassadors embarked, accompanied by Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco;having first taken leave of the great khan, who presented them,at parting, with many rubies and other precious stones, and a sumor money sufficient to defray all their expences for two years.Setting sail from Kathay or China, they arrived in three monthsat an island called Java, and sailing from thence they arrived ineighteen months in the dominions of king Argon. Six hundred ofthe mariners and others died during the voyage, and but onewoman; and only Coza of the three ambassadors survived. Onarriving at the dominions of Argon, he was found to be dead, anda person named Ghiacato or Akata, governed the kingdom for hisson Casan; who was under age. On making the regent acquaintedwith their business, he desired them to carry the young queen toCasan, who was then on the confines of Persia, towards ArborSecco[15] with an army of 60,000 men, guarding certain passes ofthe frontiers against the enterprises of their enemies; Havingexecuted this order, Nicolo, Maffei, and Marco, returned to theresidence of Chiacato, and staid there for nine months.

[15] From the circ*mstance of this kingdom of Argonbeing near Arbor Secco it would appear to have been one of theeight kingdoms of Persia mentioned in the sequel; and from thesea voyage, it probably was Mekran, which, reaches to the sea andthe Indies,--E.

At the end of this period they took leave of Chiacato, whogave them four tablets of gold, each a cubit long and fivefingers broad, and weighing three or four marks[16]. On thesewere engraven to the following purport: "In the power of theeternal God, the name of the great khan shall be honoured andpraised for many years; and whosoever disobeyeth, shall he put todeath, and all his goods confiscated." Besides this preamble,they farther commanded, that all due honour should be shown tothe three ambassadors of the khan, and service performed to themin all the countries and districts subject to his authority, asto himself in person; that all necessary relays of horses andescorts, and their expences, and every thing needful should besupplied to them freely and gratuitously. All this was dulyexecuted, so that sometimes they had 200 horse for theirsafeguard. During their journey, they were informed that thegreat emperor of the Tartars, Kublai-khan was dead, by which theyconsidered themselves absolved from all obligations of thepromise they had made to return to his court. They continuedtheir journey to Trebisond, on the south side of the Euxine;whence they proceeded by the way of Constantinople and Negropontto Venice, where they arrived in safety, and with great riches,in the year 1295.

[16] These were most princely letters-patent; equalin weight to 400 guineas, perhaps equal in efficacious value to4000 in our times.--E.

On their arrival at their own house, in the street of StChrysostom in Venice, they found themselves entirely forgotten byall their old acquaintances and countrymen, and even theirrelations were unable to recognize them, owing to their longabsence, now thirty-five years from setting, out on their firstjourney into the east; besides being much altered by age they hadbecome altogether resembling Tartars in their speech, dress andmanners, and were obliged to use some extraordinary expedients tosatisfy their family and countrymen of their identity, and torecover the respect which was their due, by a publicacknowledgment of their name, family, and rank. For this purpose,they invited all their relations arid connections to amagnificent entertainment, at which all the three travellers madetheir appearance in rich eastern habits of crimson satin. Afterthe guests were seated, and before the Polos sat down, they putoff their upper garments which they gave to the attendants,appearing still magnificently dressed in habits of crimsondamask. These they threw off at the appearance of the last courseor service of the entertainment, and bestowed likewise on theattendants; while they themselves still appeared clad inmagnificent dresses of crimson velvet. When dinner was over, andall the servants had withdrawn, Marco Polo produced to thecompany the coats of Tartarian cloth or felt, which he, and hisfather and uncle had ordinarily worn during their travels, fromthe folds of which he took out an incredible quantity of richjewels; among which were some that were well known to those whowere present at the entertainment, and by which the threetravellers incontestibly proved themselves members of the Polofamily, and the identical persons they representedthemselves.

SECTION II.

Description of Armenia the Lesser, of the country of theTurks of Greater Armenia, Zorzania, the kingdom of Mosul, of thecities of Bagdat and Tauris, and account of a strangeMiracle[1].

[1] Marco Polo having spent much the largest portionof his life among the Tartars, necessarily used their names forthe countries, places, and people which he described, and thesenames have been subsequently much disfigured in transcription.This has occasioned great perplexity to commentators inendeavouring to explain his geography conformably with modernmaps, and which even is often impossible to be done with anytolerable certainty. The arrangement, likewise, of hisdescriptions is altogether arbitrary, so that the sequence doesnot serve to remove the difficulty; and the sections appear tohave been drawn up in a desultory manner just as they occurred tohis recollection, or as circ*mstances in the conversation orinquiry of others occasioned him to commit his knowledge topaper.--E.

There are two Armenias, the Greater and the Lesser. In theLesser Armenia the king resides in a city called Sebaste; and inall this country justice and good government are strictlyenforced. This kingdom has many cities, fortresses, and castles;the soil is fertile, and the country abounds with game andwildfowl, and every necessary article of provisions, but the airis not very good. Formerly the Armenian gentlemen were brave menand good soldiers, but are now become effeminate, and addicted todrinking and debauchery. The city of Giazza, on the Black Sea,has an excellent harbour, to which merchants resort from diverscountries, even from Venice and Genoa, for several sorts ofmerchandize, especially for the different kinds of spices, andvarious other valuable goods, which are brought here from India,as this place is the settled market for the commodities of theeast.

Turcomania is inhabited by three different nations, Turcomans,Greeks, and Armenians. The Turcomans, who are Mahometans, are arude, illiterate, and savage people, inhabiting the mountains andinaccessible places, where they can procure pasture, as theysubsist only on the produce of their flocks and herds. In theircountry there are excellent horses, called Turkish horses, andtheir mules are in great estimation. The Greeks and Armenianspossess the cities and towns, and employ themselves inmanufactures and merchandize, making, especially, the bestcarpets in the world. Their chief cities are Cogno or Iconium,Caesarea, and Sebaste, where St Basil suffered martyrdom. Thiscountry is under subjection to one of the khans of theTartars.

The Greater Armenia is a large province, subject to theTartars, which has many cities and towns, the principal of whichis Arsugia, in which the best buckram in the world is made. Inthis neighbourhood there are excellent hot springs, which arecelebrated as salutary baths in many diseases. The cities next inconsequence are Argiron and Darziz. In the summer season manyTartars resort to this country on account of the richness of thepastures, and retire again in winter, because of the abundance ofsnow. The ark of Noah rested on Arrarat, one of the mountains ofArmenia.

This country has the province of Mosul and Meridin on theeast, or Diarbekir; and on the north is Zorzania[2], where thereis a fountain that discharges a liquid resembling oil; which,though it cannot be used as a seasoning for meat, is yet usefulfor burning in lamps, and for many other purposes; and it isfound in sufficient quantities to load camels, and to form amaterial object of commerce. In Zorzania is a prince named DavidMelic or King David; one part of the province being subject tohim, while the other part pays tribute to a Tartar khan. Thewoods are mostly of box-trees. Zorzania extends between theEuxine and Caspian seas; which latter is likewise called the seaof Baccu, and is 2800 miles in circumference: but is like a lake,as it has no communication with any other sea. In it there aremany islands, cities, and castles, some of which are inhabited bythe people who fled from the Tartars out of Persia.

[2] Gurgistan, usually calledGeorgia.--E.

The people of Zorzania are Christians, observing the samerites with others, and wear their hair short like the westernclergy. There are many cities, and the country abounds in silk,of which they make many fine manufactures. Moxul or Mosul, is aprovince containing many sorts of people; some are called Arahi,who are Mahometans; others are Christians of various sects, asNestorians, Jacobites, and Armenians; and they have a patriarchstiled Jacolet, who ordains archbishops, bishops, and abbots,whom he sends all over India, and to Cairo, and Bagdat, andwherever there are Christians, in the same manner as is done bythe pope of Rome. All the stuffs of gold and silk, calledmusleims, are wrought in Moxul[3]. In the mountains ofthis country of Diarbekir, dwelt the people called Curds, someoff whom are Nestorians or Jacobites, and other Mahometans. Theyare a lawless people, who rob the merchants that travel throughtheir country. Near to them is another province called Mus,Meridin, or Mardin, higher up the Tigris than Mosul, whereingrows great quantities of cotton, of which they make buckrams[4]and other manufactures. This province is likewise subject to theTartars. Baldach, or Bagdat, is a great city in which the supremecaliph formerly resided, who was pope of all the Saracens. Fromthis city it is counted seventeen days journey to the sea; butthe river Tigris runs past, on which people sail to Balsora,where the best dates in the world grow, but in the passagebetween these; two cities there lies another named Chisi. InBagdat are many manufactures of gold and silk, and damasks andvelvets with figures of various creatures; in that city there isa university, where the law of Mahoment, physic, astronomy, andgeomancy are taught; and from it come all the pearls inChristendom.

[3] This manufacture from Mosul or Moxul, on theTigris, must be carefully distinguished from the muslins ofIndia, which need not be described.--E.

[4] These buckrams seem to have been some coarsespecies of cotton cloth, in ordinary wear among the easternnations. The word occurs frequently, in these early travels inTartary, but its proper meaning is unknown--E.

When the Tartars began to extend their conquests, there werefour brothers who possessed the chief rule; of whom Mangu, theeldest, reigned in Sedia[5]. These brethren proposed tothemselves to subdue the whole world, for which purpose one wentto the east, another to the north, a third to the west, and Ulauor Houlagu went to the south in 1250, with an army of an hundredthousand horse, besides foot. Employing stratagem, he hid a greatpart of his force in ambush, and advancing with an inconsiderablenumber, enticed the caliph to follow him by a pretended flight;by this means he took the caliph prisoner, and made himselfmaster of the city, in which he found such infinite store oftreasure, that he was quite amazed. Sending for the caliph intohis presence, he sharply reproved him, that, possessing suchriches, he had not employed them in providing soldiers to defendhis dominions; and commanded him to be shut up in the tower wherehis treasure was placed, without any sustenance.

[5] This word is inexplicable, unless by supposing itsome corruption of Syra Horda, the golden court orimperial residence, which was usually in Tangut or Mongalia, onthe Orchen or Onguin. But in the days of Marco, the khans hadbetaken themselves to the luxurious ease of fixed residences andhe might have misunderstood the information he received of theresidence of Mangu.--E.

This seemed a just judgment from our Lord Jesus Christ uponthe caliph; for, in the year 1225, seeking to convert theChristians to the Mahometan superstition, and taking advantage ofthat passage in the gospel which says, "He that hath faith as agrain of mustard seed, shall be able to remove mountains," hesummoned all the Christians, Nestorians, and Jacobites, and gavethem their choice, "In ten days to remove a certain mountain, toturn Mahometans or to be slain;" alleging that there was not oneamong them who had the least grain of faith. The astonished anddismayed Christians continued ten days in prayer; when, by arevelation to a certain bishop, a certain shoemaker was chosen toperform this compulsatory miracle. This shoemaker was oncetempted to lust in fitting a shoe to a young woman, and hadliterally and zealously performed the injunction of the gospel byputting out his right eye. On the day appointed by the caliph, heand all the Christians of the city followed the cross towards themountain; then, lifting up his hands, he prayed to God to havemercy on his afflicted people, and, in a loud voice, commandedthe mountain, in the name of the holy and ever blessed Trinity toremove: which it presently did, to the great astonishment andterror of the caliph and all his people, The anniversary of thisday, and the evening before, is ever since kept holy by fastingand prayer[6].

[6] Marco Polo is no more answerable for the truth ofthis ridiculous legend of the 13th century, than the archbishopof Paris of the 19th is for many, equally absurd, that arenarrated in the French national Catechism. Both were goodcatholics, and rehearsed what they had heard, and what neither ofthem pretended to have seen.--E.

SECTION III

Of the Country of Persia, the Cities of Jasdi, Cermam andCamandu, and the Province of Reobarle.

Tauris is a great city in the province of Hircania[1], and isa very populous place. The inhabitants live by the exercise ofmanufacture and trade, fabricating, especially, stuffs of silkand gold. The foreign merchants who reside there make very greatgains, but the inhabitants are generally poor. They are a mixedpeople, of Nestorians, Armenians, Jacobites, Georgians, Persians,and Mahometans. These last are perfidious and treacherous people,who think all well got which they can filch or steal from thoseof other religions; and this wickedness of the Saracens hasinduced many of the Tartars to join their religion; and if aSaracen be killed by a Christian, even while engaged in the actof robbery, he is esteemed to have died a martyr. It is twelvedays journey from Tauris to Persia[2]. In the confines stands themonastery of St Barasam, of which the monks resemble Carmelites:they make girdles, which they lay on the altars and give to theirfriends, who esteem them as holy. Persia is divided into eightkingdoms, viz. Casbin, Curdistan[3], Laristan, Susistan orChorassan, Spahan, Ispahan or Fars, Shiras[4], Soncara[5], andlastly Timochaim, which is near Arboreseco, towards the north[6].Persia breeds excellent horses, which are sold to the Indies;also very good asses, which are sold for a higher price than thehorses, because they eat little, carry much, and travel far. Theyhave camels also, which, though not swift, are necessary in thesecountries, which, sometimes for a long way, yield no grass orwater.

[1] Now Tebriz in Corcan.--E.

[2] This must refer to Fars, or Persia proper; asTebriz is in Persia.--E.

[3] Perhaps Iracagemi?--E.

[4] Perhaps Kerman?--E.

[5] Inexplicably corrupt.--E.

[6] Timochaim and Arboresecco are inexplicable,perhaps from corrupt transcription. But Timochaim appears to navebeen Mekran on the coast of the Indian sea, and perhaps reachedto the Indus, as observed in a former note; and it may haveincluded Sigistan.--E.

The people in these countries are very wicked and covetous,thieves and murderers, killing the merchants unless they travelin caravans, yet they profess to follow the law of Mahomet. Inthe cities there are excellent artificers in gold, silk, andembroidery; and the country abounds with silk-worms, wheat,barley, millet, and other kinds of grain, with plenty of fruitsand wine; and though wine is forbidden by the Mahometan law, theyhave a gloss to correct or corrupt the text, saying, that whenboiled, it changes its taste and name, and may be then drank.

Jasdi is a great city on the confines of Persia, which carrieson a great trade, and has many manufactures of silk. Chiaman[7]is a kingdom on the frontiers of Persia to the east, which issubject to the Tartars. In the veins of the mountains, the stonescommonly called turquoises are found, and other valuable jewels.They here make all sorts of warlike weapons; and the women workadmirably with the needle in silken embroidery, on which theypourtray the figures of various animals in a most beautifulmanner. They have the best falcons in the world, which are redbreasted, of very swift flight and more easily trained than thoseof other countries. Proceeding from Chiaman or Crerina, for eightdays journey through a great plain, in which are many towns andcastles, and many habitations, with abundance of game, you cometo a great descent, in which there are abundance of fruit trees,but no habitations, except those of a few shepherds, though, inancient times, it was well inhabited. From the city of Crerina tothis descent, the cold, in winter, is quite insupportable. Afterdescending for two days journey, you come to a wide plain, at thebeginning of which is a city called Adgamad or Camandu, which, inancient times, was large and populous, but is now destroyed bythe Tartars. This plain is very warm, and the province is calledReobarle[8], in which grow pomegranates, quinces, peaches, dates,apples of paradise, pistachios, and other fruits. The oxen arelarge, white, and thin haired, with thick short blunt horns, andhaving a hunch like a camel between the shoulders about two spansround. They are accustomed to bear great burthens, and when theyare to be loaded, they are taught to bow their knees like camels,and rise again when loaded. The sheep of this country are aslarge as small asses, having such long and broad tails, that someof these weigh thirty pounds, and this part is most delicate andextremely rich food. In this plain there are many cities andtowns, having high and thick ramparts of earth to defend themagainst the Caraons, who are a mixed race between Tartar fathersand Indian mothers, ten thousand of whom are commanded by oneNugodar, the nephew of Zagathai, who once ruled in Turkestan.This Nugodar having heard of the weakness of the Malabars subjectto soldan Asiden, went, without his uncles knowledge, and tookDely and other cities, in which he erected a new sovereignty[9];and his Tartar soldiers, by mixing with the women, of thecountry, produced this spurious breed called Caraons, who go upand down, committing depredations in Reobarle, and otherneighbouring districts.

[7] Jasdi is almost certainly Yezd in Fars. Pinkertonconsiders Chiaman to be Crerina, which is impossible, as thatplace is afterwards named: Perhaps it may be the province namedTimochaim, mentioned in the immediately precedingnote.--E.

[8] As the route may be considered as nearly in astraight line south from Yesd, Crerina may possibly be the cityof Kerrnan, and the cold elevated plain, a table land between thetop of the Ajuduk mountains and a nameless range to the south,towards Gambroon or Ormus. Adgamad being destroyed, cannot now beascertained, but it must have stood on the fine plain abovedescribed, and at the bottom of these southern mountains.Reobarle is not to be found In our maps, but must have been aname for the province of Ormus.--E.

[9] There is a series of corruptions or absurditieshere: a Malabar government under a Sultan Asiden,or Asi-o-din, situated at Dely, conquered by a secretexpedition from Turkestan, requires a more correct editionof the original of Marco Polo to render intelligible. We cansuppose a tribe of Indians or Blacks not far from Gombroon, tohave been under the rule of a mussel man Sultan, and conquered orsubverted by a Tartar expedition from Touran, or the north ofPersia: But this remains a mere hypotheticalexplanation.--E.

When these people wish to commit robberies, by means ofincantations addressed to the demons, they have the means ofobscuring the air as if it were midnight darkness, that they maynot be seen from any distance. This obscurity, when once raised,lasts for seven days; and they are perfectly acquainted with allthe passes of the mountains, in which they march one afteranother in single file, so that no one can possibly escape them,but all who fall in their way, must encounter death or captivity,the old being slain, and the young sold for slaves. I Marco, whowrite this book, was once very near falling into their hands, andin the utmost danger, of being either killed or taken prisoner bythem in midst of this darkness, if I had not been so fortunate asto make my escape in to a castle, called Ganosulmi, while many ofmy companions in the journey were either taken or slain[10].

[10] For this paragraph, the editor is indebted to MrPinkerton, Mod. Geog. II. xxii. who has had the good fortune toprocure what he thinks an original edition from the MS. of MarcoPolo.--E.

After travelling in this plain for five days, towards thesouth, the road again begins, by little and little, to descendfor twenty miles together, the road itself being very bad, andnot without danger from thieves. At the bottom of this declivitythere is another plain of great beauty and fertility, whichextend for two days journey in breadth. This fine country, whichis called Cormos or Ormus[11], abounds in streams of water, andplantations of date palms, and there are abundance of birds ofvarious kinds, particularly of popinjays, which are not likethose of Europe.

[11] By some singular negligence in translating, MrPinkerton, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, hasridiculously called this country the plain of Formosa,mistaking the mere epithet, descriptive of its beauty inthe Italian language, for its name. The district was obviously adistinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its capital city; which,from its insular situation, and great trade with India, longmaintained a splendid independence.--E.

[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninthcentury, give precisely the same account of the ships of Siraf,in the same gulf of Persia.--E.

After two days journey across this plain country, we arrive atthe sea, in which is the island and city of Ormus, which is thecapital of the kingdom, and a great emporium of commerce, towhich many merchants resort, bringing spices, pearls, preciousstones, cloth of gold and silver, and all the other richcommodities of India, The king is called Ruchinad Ben Achomach,having many cities and castles under his authority, and he makeshimself the heir of all merchants who happen to die in thatplaced; yet he is himself tributary to the king of Chermain orKerman. In summer the heat of this country is quite outrageous,and the inhabitants betake themselves to their summer houses,which are built in the waters. From nine o'clock in the morningtill noon, there blows a wind, with such extreme heat, from thesands, that it is quite stifling and insufferable, and duringthis time the people sit in the water. The king of Kerman oncesent an array of 5000 foot and 1600 horse against the king ofOrmus, to compel the payment of tribute, when the whole army wasstifled by that wind. The inhabitants of Ormus eat no flesh, orbread made of corn; but live upon dates, salt fish, and onions.The ships of this country are not very stout, as they do notfasten them with iron nails, because the timber is too brittle,and would split in driving these home; but they are fastened withwooden pins, and sewed with twine made from the husks of certainIndian nuts, prepared in a peculiar manner; this twine or threadis very strong, and is able to endure the force and violence ofthe waters, and is not easily corrupted[12]. These ships haveonly one mast, one beam or yard, and one deck, and are not payedwith pitch, but with the oil and fat of fishes; and when theycross the sea to India, carrying horses or other cargoes, theylose many ships, because they are not strengthened with iron. Thepeople of this country are black, and have embraced the religionof Mahomet. It is the custom of this country, when the master ofa family dies, that the widow shall mourn for him publickly onceevery day, for four years; but there are women who profess thepractice of mourning, and are hired to mourn daily for thedead.

[11] By some singular negligence in translating, MrPinkerton, in the passage quoted in the preceding note, hasridiculously called this country the plain of Formosa,mistaking the mere epithet, descriptive of its beauty inthe Italian language, for its name. The district was obviously adistinct small kingdom, named Ormus from its capital city; which,from its insular situation, and great trade with India, longmaintained a splendid independence.--E.

[12] The two Mahometan travellers of the ninthcentury, give precisely the same account of the ships of Siraf,in the same gulf of Persia.--E.

In returning from Ormus to Kerman, you pass through a fertileplain, but the bread made there cannot be eaten, except by thosewho are accustomed to it, it is so exceedingly bitter, on accountof the water with which it is made. In this country there areexcellent hot baths, which cure many diseases.

SECTION IV.

Account of several other Countries, and their PrincipalCuriosities.

From Kerman[1], in three days riding, you come to a desertwhich extends to Cobin-ham[2], seven days journey across, thedesert. In the first three days you have no water, except a fewsalt, bitter ponds, of a green colour, like the juice of herbs;and whoever drinks even a small quantity of this water, cannotescape a dysentery, and even beasts that are compelled to drinkof it, do not escape without a scouring. It is thereforenecessary for travellers to carry water along with them, thatthey may avoid the inconvenience and danger of thirst. In thefourth day you find a subterranean river of fresh water[3]. Thethree last days of this desert are like the first three.Cobin-ham is a great city, where great mirrors of steel aremade[4]. Tutia also, which is a cure for sore eyes, and spodioare made here in the following manner: From the mines of thiscountry they dig a certain earth, which is thrown into furnaces,from which the vapours, forced downwards, through an iron grate,condense below into tutia of tutty[5], and the grosser matterremaining in the furnace is called spodio.

[1] Marco here probably means the town or city ofKerm-shir, as that lies in the course of his present route fromOrmus to the north-east of Persia.--E.

[2] This name is inexplicable; yet from thecirc*mstance of its mines, and the direction of the journey, itmay have been situated near the Gebelabad mountains; and someGerman editor may have changed abad, into the preciselysimilar significant termination ham. The original probablyhad Cobin-abad.--E.

[3] In confirmation of the idea entertained of thepresent route of Marco, from Ormus by Kerm-shir, to thenorth-east of Persia, there is, in the maps, a short river in thedesert between Diden and Mastih, which has no outlet, but losesitself in the sands, on which account he may have called itsubterraneous, as sinking into the earth.--E.

[4] More probably of copper, whitened by someadmixture of zinc, and other metals, of the existence of which inthis district there are sufficient indications in the sequel.These mirrors may have been similar to telescopemetal.--E.

[5] What is here called Tutty, is probably thesublimed floculent white oxid, or flowers ofzinc.--E.

Leaving Cobin-ham, you meet with another desert of eight daysjourney in extent, and terribly barren, having neither trees orwater, except what is extremely bitter, insomuch, that beastsrefuse to drink of it, except when mixed with meal, andtravellers are therefore obliged to carry water along with them.After passing this desert, you come to the kingdom ofTimochaim[6], in the north confines of Persia, in which there aremany cities and strong castles. In this country there is anextensive plain, in which one great tree grows, which is calledthe Tree of the Sun, and by Christians Arbore-secco[7], or thedry tree. This tree is very thick, the leaves being green on oneside, and white on the other, and it produces prickly and huskyshells, like those of chesnuts, but nothing in them. The wood isstrong and solid, and of a yellow colour like box. There are noother trees within an hundred miles, except on one side, wherethere are trees at the distance of ten miles. In this place, theinhabitants say that Alexander fought a battle against Darius[8].The cities of this place are plentifully furnished with goodthings; the air is temperate, and the people handsome, especiallythe women, who are in my opinion the handsomest in the world.

[6] Timochaim seems obviously Segistan, to whichMechran appears to have been then joined, from the circ*mstancebefore related of the Polos having gone from China by sea to thiskingdom. The strange application of Timochaim is probablycorrupt, and may perhaps be explicable on the republication ofthe Trevigi edition of these travels; till then, we must restsatisfied with probable conjecture.--E.

[7] The native name of this tree, and of the plain inwhich it grew, appears obviously to have been translated by Marcointo Italian.--E.

[8] It is possible that this Arbore-secco may havesome reference to Arbela.--E.

SECTION V.

History of the Assassins, and the manner in which theirPrince was killed: With the description of several otherCountries.

Mulchet[1], in the Saracen language, signifies the place ofHeretics, and the people of the place are called Hulehetici, orheretics in regard to the Mahometan law. The prince of thiscountry is called the old man of the mountain, concerningwhom I Marco heard much from many persons during my travels. Hisname was Aloadin, and he was a Mahometan. In a lovely valleybetween two high and inaccessible mountains, he caused a pleasantgarden to be laid out, furnished with the best trees and fruitsthat could be procured, and adorned with many palaces andbanqueting houses, beautified with gilded bowers, pictures, andsilken tapestries. Through this place, by means of pipes, wine,milk, honey, and water were distributed in profusion; and it wasprovided with beautiful damsels, skilled in music, singing anddancing, and in all imaginable sports and diversions. Thesedamsels were dressed in silk and gold, and were seen continuallysporting in the garden and its palaces. He made this garden withall its palaces and pleasures, in imitation of that sensualparadise, which Mahomet had promised to his followers. No mancould enter into this garden, as the mouth of the valley wasclosed up by a strong castle, from which there was a secretentrance into the garden, which was called the TerrestrialParadise.

[1] Called likewise Mulete or Alamut; Marco makeshere a sudden return to the north-west of Persia; and from theabruptness of the transition, it has been probably disarranged intranscription. This country has been likewise called the land ofthe Assassins; it is near Cashbin in Dilem, on the borders ofMazenderan.--E.

Aloadin had certain youths from twelve to twenty years of age,chosen among such as seemed of a bold and dauntless character,who were initiated in all the pleasures and delights of thisparadise, and whom he employed to entice others to join theselect company of young enthusiasts, by representing the joys andpleasures of the paradise of Aloadin. When he thought proper, hecaused ten or twelve of these youths to be cast into a deepsleep, by means of a potion, and then had them conveyed severallyinto different chambers of the garden palaces; where they wereattended upon at their awaking by the beautiful damsels, andsupplied with all kind of delicious meats and fruits andexcellent wines, and in whose company they enjoyed all manner ofluxurious delights, so that they imagined that they were actuallytransported into paradise. When they had revelled in delights fora few days, they were again cast into a deep sleep, and removedfrom the garden of pleasure; and being brought into the presenceof Aloadin, were questioned by him where they had been. The oldman then represented that it was the command of the prophet, thatwhoever was faithful and obedient to his lord, should enjoy thedelights of paradise; and that if they would faithfully obey allhis commands, they should be admitted to reside continually amongthe joys of which they had been permitted to participate for ashort time. Having thus roused their passions for pleasure, theythought themselves happy to execute whatever commands they mightreceive, even at the utmost hazard of their lives, being assured,whether living or dead, that their obedience would secure themthe eternal enjoyment of paradise and all its delights. By thesemeans Aloadin used to procure the murder of other lords who werehis enemies, by these his assassins, who despised all dangers,and contemned their lives when employed in his service. By thisprocedure he was esteemed a tyrant, and greatly dreaded by allaround; and he had two vicars or deputies, one in theneighbourhood of Damascus, and another in Curdistan, who hadsimilarly instructed young men under their orders. Besides this,he used to rob all passengers who went past his borders. Atlength, in the year 1262, Ulau, or Houlagu-khan, sent an armedforce against him, which besieged his castle for three years, andat length made themselves masters of it, partly by famine, andpartly by undermining the walls[2].

[2] The last of these princes was named Moadin, who,as mentioned in the text, was made prisoner, and put to death byHoulagu-khan. In the sequel of this work, there will be foundother and more full accounts of this old man of the mountain, orprince of the assassins. --E.

Departing from thence[3], you come to a pleasant enoughcountry, diversified by hills and plains with excellent pasture,and abundance of fruits, the soil being very fertile[4]. Thiscontinues for six days journey, and then you enter a desert offorty or fifty miles without water; after which you come to thecity of Sassurgan[5], where there are plenty of provisions, andparticularly the best melons in the world, which are as sweet ashoney. Passing from thence, we come to a certain city namedBatach, Balach, or Balk, which was formerly large and famous,having sumptuous marble palaces, but is now overthrown by theTartars. In this city it is reported that Alexander married thedaughter of Darius. The eastern and north-eastern frontiers ofPersia reach to this city; but in proceeding between the east andnorth-east from this place, We found no habitations for two daysjourney, the inhabitants having endured so many grievances fromthieves, that they were compelled to fly to the mountains forsafety. There are many rivers in this country, and much game, andlions are also to be met with. As travellers can find no food inthis part of their journey, they must carry enough with them fortwo days. At the end of two days journey, we came to a castlecalled Thaican, Thalkan, or Thakan, where we saw pleasant fieldsand abundance of corn. The mountains to the south of this placeare high, some of which contain white salt, so extremely hardthat it has to be dug out and broken with iron tools; and theinhabitants, from thirty days journey all around, come here toprocure salt, which is of most excellent quality, and is in suchamazing quantities, that the whole world might be supplied fromthese mines. The other mountains produce abundance of almonds andpistachio nuts.

[3] The transition seems here again abrupt, andunconnected; at least the intermediate country of Mazerderan andChorassan to the desert, probably of Margiana, is very slightlypassed over.--E.

[4] In this section, Marco seems to trace his journeyalong with his father and uncle from Giazza towards Tartary; butthe regular connection appears to have been thrown intoconfusion, by ignorant transcribers and editors.--E.

[5] Probably Satugar of the modern maps, on thewestern border of Balk.--E.

Going between the east and north-east from hence, the countryis fruitful, but the inhabitants are perfidious Mahometans,murderers, thieves, and drunkards. Their wine is boiled, andtruly excellent. They go bareheaded, except that the men bind astring or fillet, ten handbreadths long, about their heads. Theymake breeches and shoes of the skins of wild beasts, and use noother garments. After three days journey is the town ofScasom[6], seated in a plain, through the middle of which thereflows a great river; and there are many castles in thesurrounding mountains[7]. There are many porcupines in thiscountry, which are hunted by dogs; and these animals, contractingthemselves with great fury, cast their sharp quills at the menand dogs, and often wound them. The nation has a peculiarlanguage, and the shepherds dwell in caves in the mountains. Wewent three days journey from thence, without meeting anyinhabitants, to the province of Balaxiam, Balascia or Balasagan,which is inhabited by Mahometans, who have a peculiar language.Their kings, who succeed each other hereditarily, pretend toderive their lineage from Alexander and the daughter of Darius,and are called Dulcarlen, which signifies Alexandrians. In thiscountry the famous Ballas rubies are found, and other preciousstones of great value, particularly in the mountains of Sicinam.No person dares either to dig for these stones, or to send themout of the country, without the consent and licence of the king,on pain of death; and he only sends them to such as he thinksfit, either as presents, or in payment of tribute; he likewiseexchanges many of them for gold and silver, lest they shouldbecome too cheap and common. In other mountains of the sameprovince, the best lapis lazuli in the world is found, from whichazure or ultramarine is made. There are mines also of silver,copper, and lead. The climate is very cold, yet it producesabundance of large, strong, and swift horses, which have suchhard and tough hoofs, that they do not require iron shoes,although they have to run among rocks. It is said, that not manyyears ago, the king's uncle was in the exclusive possession of abreed of horses descended from the famous Bucephalus, and markedon the forehead exactly as he was; and refusing to let the kinghave any of his stud, he was put to death, on which his widow, inrevenge, destroyed the whole race. The mountains of this countryproduce the sacre falcon, the lanner, the goshawk, and thesparrowhawk, all excellent in their kind, and much used by theinhabitants in the chase, as they are all much addicted tohunting. The soil of this country produces excellent wheat, andbarley without husks, and oil made of nuts and mustard, whichresembles the oil from lintseed, but is more savoury than otheroil. The men of the country are excellent archers and keenhunters, and are mostly clothed in the skins of beasts; while thewomen contrive to put sixty or eighty yards of cotton cloth intothe skirts of their garments, as the bulkier they look they areesteemed the handsomer. The plains of this country are large, andwell watered with fine rivers, but the hills are high and steep,and the passes very difficult of access, by which the inhabitantsare secured against invasions; and in these mountains there areflocks of from four hundred to six hundred wild sheep, which arevery difficult to catch. If any one contracts an ague by livingin the moist plains, he is sure to recover his health by a fewdays residence in the mountains, which I Marco experienced in myown person after a whole years sickness.

[6] Forster considers this place to be Scasse orAl-shash, on the river Sirr or Sihon, perhaps the Tashkund ofmodern maps, in the province of Shash. The distances given byMarco must be strangely corrupted by transcribers and editors, orMarco must have forgot when he wrote his travels, perhapstwenty-six years after he passed this country, when only a boy.The distance between Balk, on one of the branches of the Sihon orOxus, and Shash on the Jihon or Sirr, is at least 350 miles in astraight line; which he appears to have travelled in fivedays, but which would more probably occupyfifteen.--E.

[7] This river is probably the Sirr or Sihon; and themountains of Karatan and Arjun pervade the district, the twochains being separated by the river.--E.

The province Bascia, or Vash, on a river of that name whichfalls into the Gihon, is ten days journey to the south ofBalaxiam, and the country is very hot, on which account thepeople are of a brown colour. They have a language of their own,and wear gold and silver ear-rings, artificially ornamented withpearls and other precious stones; they eat flesh and rice, andare crafty and cruel idolaters.

The province of Chesmur, Khesimus, Khaschimir, or Cashmere, isseven days journey from Bascia. The inhabitants have also apeculiar language of their own, and are given to idolatry beyondall others, and addicted to enchantment, forcing their idols tospeak, and darkening the day. The people of this country are notwholly black, but of a brown complexion, the air being temperate.They are extremely lean, although they use abundance of flesh andrice; yet the natives will shed no blood, and employ the Saracenswho live among them to slaughter their cattle. They have manystrong cities and towns, and being surrounded by deserts andrugged mountains, they are in no danger of any foreign enemies,so that the king of this country yields tribute to none. Coral isheld in great estimation in this country, and sells dearer thanin any other part of the world. There are certain hermits in thisprovince, who live with great abstinence in cells andmonasteries, devoting their whole lives to the service of theiridols, and observing the strictest chastity; Many of these menare reputed as saints and are held in high estimation among thepeople. From this province you may go to the Indies and theocean; but I shall not now follow out the course to India, butreturning to Balaxiam, shall trace the way to Kathay, betwixt theeast and north-east.

Beyond Balaxium is a certain river, on which there are manycastles and villages, belonging to the brother of the king ofBalaxium; and after three days journey, we came to Vachan[8],which extends three days journey in length, and as much isbreadth, The inhabitants of this country have a peculiarlanguage, and are Mahometans; they are brave Warriors, and goodhuntsmen, as their country abounds in wild beasts. Departing fromthence, in a direction between the east and north-east, weascended for three whole days journey, until we came to anexceeding high mountain, than which there is none said to behigher in the world. In this place, between two mountains, is aplain, in which is a great lake, and a fine river runs throughthe plain, on the banks of which are such excellent pastures,that a lean horse or ox will become quite fat in ten days. Itcontains also great quantities of wild beasts, and particularlyvery large wild sheep, having horns six spans long, out of whichthey make various kinds of vessels. This plain continues twelvedays journey in length, and is called Pamer, in whichthere are no habitations, so that travellers must carry all theirprovisions along with them. This plain is so high and cold thatno birds are to be found; and it is even said, that fires do notburn so bright in this place, and do not so effectually boil ordress victuals as in other places[9]. From hence, the way toKathay leads, for forty days journey, between the east and thenorth-east, through mountains, hills, and vallies, in which thereare many rivers, but no villages, neither any verdure, exceptthat some huts and cottages are to be seen among the mountains;but the inhabitants are savage and wicked idolaters, who live byhunting, and are clothed in the skins of wild beasts; the countryis called Palow[10]. After this you come to the province ofCaschar[11], which is inhabited by Mahometans, who are tributaryto the great khan of the Mongals or Tartars. The soil is fertile,and the country is full of pleasant fields, gardens, andorchards, producing vines, fruit trees, cotton, hemp, and flax,and extends five days journey. The inhabitants have a particularlanguage, and have many merchants, manufacturers, and artizans,but they are so covetous, that they do not allow themselveseither good meat or drink. Among them there are some NestorianChristians, who also have some churches,

[8] Vochan, Vocham or Vakhan, on the riverVash.--Forst.

[9] This observation was made on the mountains ofSavoy and Switzerland, not many years ago, by M. de Luc, andpublished as a new discovery. The phenomena must be owing to thediminished pressure of the atmosphere at this great elevation, bywhich water boils at a much lower temperature than is requisitefor effective cookery: A digester would effectually remove thisevil, by enabling the water to become sufficiently hot, withoutbeing dissipated.--E.

[10] Beloro, Belor, or Belur, according to Forster.This immense extent of forty days journey through deserts, seemsto include the deserts of Sultus, Cobi, and Shamo, and to reachto the frontiers of Kathay, or Northern China.--E.

[11] Cascar, Chascar, Cassar, Kaschgar, or Hasicar,according to Forster. Cashgar is at the western end of the greatdesert, instead of the eastern, as expressed in the text; indeedthis route is most confusedly, and almost unintelligibly laiddown, probably from corrupted transcription. The series ought tohave been, the high table land of Pamer, the province of Cashgar,and lastly, the desert of Pelow or Belur. But care must be takento distinguish this from the chain of Belur-tag, which runs northand south, between Great and Little Bucharia.--E.

SECTION VI.

Of the city of Samarcand, the town of Lop, the Great Desertin its Neighbourhood, and other remarkable Passages.

Samarcand[1] is a great and famous city, in a fertile plain,and surrounded by fine gardens. It is subject to the nephew ofthe great khan, and is inhabited by a mixed population ofChristians and Mahometans, among whom there is little agreement;and in one of their disputes, the following miracle is said tohave happened, about an hundred years ago. Zagathai, the brotherof the great khan, then governed this country, and was persuadedto become a Christian; and the Christians, through his favour,built a church in honour of St John the Baptist, which wasconstructed with such skill, that the whole roof seemed to dependfor support upon one central pillar, which was founded upon alarge stone, which, by the permission of Zagathai, had been takenfrom a building belonging to the Mahometans. After the death ofZagathai, he was succeeded by a son who was not of the Christianfaith, and from him the Mahometans obtained an order, by whichthe Christians were compelled to restore that stone; and thoughthey offered a sum of money as a compensation, the Mahometansabsolutely insisted to have the stone itself, hoping, by thatmeans, to reduce the Christian church to ruins: But the pillarlifted itself up, that the Mahometans, might remove the contestedstone, and still continues suspended in the air.

[1] The text is here obviously transposed. While theeditor endeavours to illustrate and explain the descriptions ofthe author, he does not consider himself at liberty to alter thetext, even in the most obviously faulty places.--E.

Departing from this city, we came into the province ofCharahan[2], which is about five days journey in length, and hasplenty of provisions. The inhabitants are mostly Mahometans,intermixed with some Nestorian Christians, and are subject to thenephew of the great khan. They are diligent artificers in variousmanufactures, but are much subject to thick legs, and thegoitres or large wens on their throats, occasioned by thebad quality of the waters of the country. The province of Cotamfollows between the east and the north-east[3]. It is subject tothe nephew of the great khan, and has many cities and towns, thechief city being called Cotam. This province extends eight daysjourney in length, and possesses every thing necessary for life,in sufficient abundance; particularly cotton, flax, hemp, corn,and wine. The people are Mahometans, and not warlike, but areskilful in various articles of manufacture.

[2] Charchan, Charcham, Carcam, Hiarkand, Jarkun,Jerket, Jerken, Urkend; such are the varieties in the editions ofthese travels, for the Yarkand of modern maps. This paragraphought obviously to have followed the account ofCashgar.--E.

[3] Cotan, Cotam, Hotum, Khoten, Khotan, from whichthe useful material of manufacture, cotton, takes itsname. But instead of being between the east and north-eastdirection from Yarkand, as in the text, or E.N.E. it is actuallyE.S.E.--E.

Proceeding through the same country, we come to the provinceof Peim, extending four days journey in length, and containingmany towns and castles, the city of Peim being the chief, nearwhich there is a river in which jaspers and chalcedonies andother valuable stones are found. The inhabitants, who areMahometans, are expert manufacturers, and are subject to thegreat khan. There is a custom in this province, that when anymarried man goes to a distance from home, and remains absent fortwenty days, it is lawful for his wife to marry another husband;and reciprocally, if the wife absents herself for twenty days,the husband may take another wife.

The next province, Ciascian[4], of which the chief city isnamed Sartan, is subject to the Tartars, and has many cities andcastles. In its rivers abundance of jaspers, chalcedonies, andother fine stones are found, which are carried by merchants allthe way to Ouchach or Kathay, and sold there with great profitFrom Peim to Sartem, and quite through this latter province, thesoil is very sandy, having very little water, and that generallybad. When an army passes through this province, all theinhabitants take their wives and children, with all their cattleand valuables, two days journey into the sands, to places wherethey know that good water is to be found, and remain there tillthe army has quitted the country; after harvest also, theyuniformly take all their corn into the desert, and hide it inpits, and the wind soon obliterates all traces of theirfootsteps, so that their enemies are unable to discover wherethey have deposited these precious hoards. After travelling forfive days through the sands from this province, we arrive at thegreat city of Lop, which is at the entrance of a great desertcalled the Wilderness of Lop[5]. The inhabitants of this placeare Mahometans, and are subject to the great khan. All thebefore-mentioned provinces, Cashgar, Yarkand, Koten, Peim,Sartem, and Lop, are in the bounds of Turkestan.

[4] Called likewise Ciarciam, Ciartiam, and Sartam,in different editions. --E.

[5] The journey from Sartem to Lop is obviouslyretrograde, and this course must have been pursued by the Polosfor commercial purposes; perhaps for collecting those valuablestones which are mentioned by Marco as giving so much profit whensold in China.--E.

It requires a months journey to cross this desert from southto north, but to go through it lengthways would take up a wholeyear. Those who intend to cross the desert remain for some timein Lop, on purpose to prepare all necessaries for the journey, asno provisions are to be met with for a whole month. These, withtheir merchandize, are loaded on asses and camels, and ifprovisions fall short in the desert, the unfortunate travellersare reduced to the necessity of killing their beasts of burdenfor sustenance, preferring the asses for this purpose, as thecamels can carry much heavier burdens, and are satisfied withless food. This journey is entirely through sands and barrenmountains, in which water is found every day; yet at some of theresting places it is so scanty as hardly to suffice for a caravanof fifty of an hundred persons and their cattle. In three or fourplaces the water is salt and bitter, but in all the rest of thejourney it is very good. In the whole of this journey there areno beasts or birds to be seen. It is reported, that many evilspirits reside in the wilderness, which occasion wonderfulillusions to travellers who happen unfortunately to lag behindtheir companions calling them even by their names, and causingthem to stray farther from the right course, so that they losetheir way and perish in the sands. In the night time also theyhear noises as of their friends, and sometimes the sound of musicis heard in the air, and people imagine that they hear the din ofdrums, as if armies were marching past. To avoid the danger ofseparation, the travellers in the desert keep close together, andhang bells about the necks of their beasts; and if any one staysbehind, they set up marks in the route, that they may know how tofollow.

Having crossed the desert of Lop, we come to the city ofSachion[6] or Sachiou, which is subject to the great khan, and issituated in the great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of thiscity are mostly idolaters, who have a peculiar language, mixedwith a good many Mahometans, and some Nestorian Christians; thispeople are little addicted to merchandize or manufacture, andlive on the products of their soil. In this city there are manytemples, consecrated to various idols, with monasteries ofpriests devoted to the service of these false deities, to whichnumerous sacrifices are offered with great reverence. When a sonis born to any person, he is immediately consecrated to theprotection of some particular idol, and the father nourishes asheep in his house for a year with great care; and on theanniversary day of that idol, he presents his son and the sheepas a sacrifice, with great reverence and many ceremonies, beforethe shrine of this tutelary deity. The flesh of the sheep isboiled and set before the idol during the continuance of theprayers and invocations, as an offering for the preservation andprotection of the boy, and the idol is supposed to inhale thesavour of the meat. After the religious ceremonies are finished,the meat is carried home to the father's dwelling, where all thekindred of the family are convened, and feasted with great joyand devotion; but the bones are religiously kept in certainappropriated vessels. The priests receive the head, feet, skin,and intrails, with a portion of the flesh for their share.

[6] Schatscheu, Tschat-scheu, or Chat-chou, on thePolonkir, which runs into the Hara lake.--E.

When a person of any estimation dies, his funerals arecelebrated with much ceremony. An astrologer is sent for by thekindred, and informed of the year, month, day, and hour when thedeceased was born, when he calculates the aspect of theconstellation, and assigns the day when the burial is to takeplace, sometimes at the distance of seven days, or perhaps theplanet may not have a favourable aspect for six months, duringall which time the body is kept in the house. For this purpose afit chest or coffin is provided, which is so artificially jointedthat no noisome smell can escape, and in this the body is placed,having been previously embalmed with spices. The coffin isornamented with painting, and is covered over with an embroideredcloth. Every day, while the body remains unburied, a table isspread near the coffin, and set out with meat, bread, and wine,which remains for as long a time as a living person would requireto eat and drink, and the soul of the deceased is supposed tofeed upon the savour. The astrologers sometimes forbid the bodyto be carried out for interment at the principal door of thehouse, pretending to be regulated in this by the stars, and orderit to be carried out by some other way; or will even command apassage to be broken out in the opposite wall of the house, topropitiate the adverse planet. And if any one object to this,they allege that the spirit of the dead would be offended, andwould occasion injury to the family. When the body is carriedthrough the city to be buried, wooden cottages are built atcertain distances by the way, having porches covered with silk,in which the coffin is set down, with a table spread out withbread and wine and delicate viands, that the spirit of the deadmay be refreshed with the savour. When the body is carried to theplace of the funeral, a number of pieces of paper, made of thebark of trees, curiously painted with figures of men and womenservants, horses, camels, money, and garments of all kinds arecarried in procession, all the instruments of music in the citysounding as the cavalcade moves along; and all these pieces ofpainted paper are burned in the same funeral pile with the body,under the idea that the deceased will have as many servants,cattle, and garments in the next world, and as much money, asthere were pictures of these things burnt along with his body,and shall live perpetually hereafter in the enjoyment of allthese things[7].

[7] It is highly probable that this emblematicalrepresentation had been substituted by some humane legislator orconqueror, in place of the actual sacrifice of the servants,cattle, and goods themselves, which we are well assured was oncethe practice among many rude nations, in honour of their deceasedgreat men.--E.

SECTION VII.

Of the Province of Chamil and several other Countries onthe road from thence to the City of Ezina; and of another greatDesert.

The province of Chamil, which abounds in all the necessariesof life, is situated in the wide country of Tangut, and issubject to the great khan. This province, of which the city ofChamil or Hami is the capital[1], is bounded by two deserts; thegreat desert of Lop already mentioned, and another which is onlythree days journey across[2]. The inhabitants are idolaters, havea peculiar language, and appear to live only for amusem*nt,devoting their whole time to singing, dancing, and sports,playing upon instruments of music, and reading and writing aftertheir fashion. When any traveller goes into a house forentertainment and lodging, the master of the family receives himwith great joy, and commands his wife and family to obey thestranger in all things so long as he may choose to remain, andeven departs immediately from his own house, that he may not beany restraint upon his guest. And while the traveller remains, hemay choose a female bed fellow every night, either the wife,daughter, or servant of the polite host, as he feels inclined.The women of the country are very beautiful, and are perfectlyready to obey these singular commands; and the husbands believethat this strange hospitality is conducive to their own honourand glory, and is an acceptable service to their idols, fromwhose favour it secures prosperity and abundance to themselvesand their country. Mangu-khan having received notice of thisdetestable custom, issued a peremptory order for itsdiscontinuance, and it was accordingly laid aside for threeyears; but as these years happened to be unusually barren, andthe inhabitants were vexed with some disasters in their domesticconcerns, they sent ambassadors to the khan, earnestly entreatinghim to revoke so grievous a mandate, and to permit them tocontinue a custom which had been handed down by their ancestors.To this the khan answered, "Since you glory in your shame, youmay go and act according to your customs." The messengers whobrought back this favourable answer, were received with greatrejoicings by the nation; and the above custom continued when IMarco was among them.

[1] Called also Kamul, Chamul, Khami, andCame-xu.--Forst.

[2] The desert of Noman-Cobi; or Tzokurin of modernmaps.--E.

After leaving the province of Chamil, we enter into that ofChinchintalas[3], subject to the great khan, which is bounded bythe desert on the north, and is sixteen days journey in length.It has large cities and many castles, the inhabitants beingdivided into three sects or religions: The greater number areidolaters, a considerable number are Mahometans, and a smallproportion are Nestorian Christians. In this province there aremountains containing mines of steel, and andanicum or audanicum,and also a mineral substance called salamander or asbestos, fromthe wool of which an incombustible cloth is manufactured, which,if cast into the fire does not burn. This cloth is actually madeof stone in the following manner, as I was informed by a Turknamed Curifar, an intelligent industrious person of myacquaintance, who had the superintendence of the mines in thisprovince. A certain mineral is found in these mountains, whichyields fibres resembling wool: After being thoroughly dried inthe sun, this substance is pounded in a brass mortar, and thenwashed to remove all earthy impurities; and the clean fibrousmatter is spun in the same manner as wool, and woven into cloth.When this cloth requires to be cleaned or whitened, it is throwninto the fire for an hour, and is then taken out unhurt, and aswhite as snow. It is said, there is a napkin at Rome of thissalamander wool, in which the handkerchief of the Lord Jesus iskept wrapped up, which a certain king of the Tartars sent as apresent to the Pope. But as for the salamander or serpent, whichis reported to live in the fire, I could hear of no such creaturein all the eastern countries.

[3] Called likewise Cinchincalas, Sanghin-talgin,Sankin-talai, and Chitalas-dalai.--Forst. This appears to be thedistrict stretching to the S.E. of the Bogdo mountains, betweenthe Changai ridge on the north, and the Ungandag on the south,now occupied by a tribe of Eluts, and in which there do notappear to be any towns.--E.

Leaving this province, we travel for ten days between the eastand north-east, during which there are few habitations or thingsworthy of remark; after which we come to the province ofSuccir[4], in which there are many towns and villages, the chiefcity being called Succir. In this province, which is subject tothe great khan, there are a few Christians among a great numberof idolaters. The best rhubarb[5] is found in great quantities inthis province, and is carried thence by merchants to variousparts of the world. Strangers dare not go to the mountains wherethe rhubarb grows, on account of certain poisonous plants, whichoccasion any beasts that feed upon them to cast their hoofs; butthe beasts of the country know this plant, and avoid feeding uponit Campion[6] is a great city, and is the chief place in allTangut. In it, besides idolaters and Mahometans, there are a goodmany Christians, who have three fair churches. The idolaters havemany temples and monasteries dedicated to their idols. Theseidols are very numerous, and are made of stone, wood, or clay,some of them curiously inlaid with gold, and very artificiallymade: Some are very large, almost ten paces high, standingupright, and having many smaller idols placed around, which seemto give reverence to the great one. The priests of these idolsappear to live more regularly, and are less addicted tovoluptuousness than other idolaters. Yet wantonness is not lookedupon in this country as any great sin; for they say if a womaninvites a man, there is no harm in compliance, but if the mansolicits the woman, it is quite otherwise.

[4] Suchur, Succuir, Souk, or Suck, on the riverSuck, which empties itself into the river of Pegu to the north ofThibet.--Forst.

This I suspect to be Chioming of our modern maps, on a riverwhich runs north into the Soukouk lake.--E.

[5] The country of the genuine rhubarb has beendescribed by the great Russian traveller Palas, as situated onthe river Selingol, not far from the town of Selinga, which fallsinto the Chattungol, Hoang-ho, Choango, or Karamuren.--Forst.

The travels of Palas will be found in an after portion of thiswork; and it need only be remarked in this place, that there areat least two kinds of true rhubarb, the China and Russia; andthat two species of the genus, the R. Palmatum and R. Undulatum,certainly produce the drug nearly of the same quality, and areprobably to be found in various parts of central Asia orTartary,--E.

[6] Kampion, Kampition, Kampiciou, Kantscheu, orKan-tcheou, in the Chinese province of Shensi, on theEtzine-moren, or Etchine river, which joins theSouk.--Forst.

In this country they divide the year by lunations, and inevery moon they keep certain days as holy, in some five, or four,or three days, in which they kill no beast or bird, and abstainfrom animal food. The people of this country marry twenty orthirty wives, or as many as they are able to maintain, but thefirst wife always has the precedence over the others. The husbandreceives no portion with his wife, but on the contrary has toassign her a dower in cattle, servants, and money, according tohis ability. If any of the wives does not live in harmony withthe rest, or if she becomes disliked by her husband, it is lawfulfor him to put her away. They marry their own near relations, andeven the wives of their deceased father, excepting always theirown mothers. In the manners and customs of this country, I Marcowas sufficiently experienced, having dwelt a whole year in thisplace, along with my father and uncle, for the dispatch ofcertain affairs of business.

In twelve days journey from Campion, we come to the city ofEzina[7], which borders on a sandy desert towards the north. Allthe provinces and cities before mentioned, viz. Sachion, Camul,Chinchintalas, Succair, Campion, and Ezina, are comprehended inthe great country of Tangut. The inhabitants of Ezina areidolaters, who live by agriculture, and on the produce of theirflocks and herds, having great quantities of camels and othercattle, but carry on no trade. In this country there are forestsof pine trees, in which there are wild asses, and many other wildbeasts; there are likewise abundance of falcons, particularly thelanner and sacre, which are reckoned excellent. Such travellersas intend to pass through the great desert of Shamo, which isforty days journey in extent, must provide all their provisionsin this place, as they afterwards meet with no habitations,except a few straggling people here and there on the mountainsand valleys.

[7] Eziva, or Etzine, on a river of the same name,which runs into the Suck or Souhouk.--Forst.

SECTION VIII.

Of the City of Caracarum and of the Tartars, with someaccount of their History, Monarchs, and Manners.

Having passed over the before mentioned desert of forty days,travelling always to the northward, we come to the large city ofCharachoran, or Caracarum[1] which is three miles incircumference, and strongly fortified with an earthen rampart, asthere is no stone in these parts. Near the city there is a greatcastle with an elegant palace, in which the governor usuallyresides. Near this place the Tartars used to assemble in oldtimes, and here therefore I shall explain the original of theirempire.

[1] Caracarum, Caracorum, Taracoram, Korakarum,Karakarin, Karakum, called Holin by the Chinese. This city waslaid down by Danville, with acknowledged uncertainty, on theOnguin-pira river, in Lat. 44°. 50'. N. Long. 107°. E.;while others assign its situation on the Orchon, in Lat. 46°.30. N. Long. 108-1/2 E: about 150 miles to theN.W.--E.

They dwelt at first in the northern parts called Curza andBargu[2], where there are many vast plains without cities andtowns, but abounding in pastures, lakes, and rivers. They had noprince of their own nation, but paid tribute to a certain greatking, named, as I have been told, in their language,Umcan, and which some people believe to signify, in thelanguages of Europe, Prester-John[3]; and to whom the Tartarsgave yearly a tenth part of the increase of their flocks andherds, and of their horses. In process of time, the Tartars soincreased in numbers, that Umcan became afraid of them, andendeavoured to disperse them into several parts of his empire;and when any of them rebelled, he used to send parties into theirterritories to reduce them to obedience; for which purpose, heeven frequently deputed some of their own nobles. At length itbecame obvious to the whole nation, that their ruin was intended;and being unwilling to be separated from each other, they retiredinto the northern deserts, where they might be safe from thepower of Umcan, to whom they refused the accustomed tribute.After continuing in the north for some time, they chose a kingamong themselves, named Zingis-khan, who was a wise and valiantman, and reigned with such justice, that he was beloved andfeared of all as a god rather than as a prince, so that by hisfame and prowess, he soon reduced all the Tartars in these partsunder his authority. Seeing himself at the head of so manyvaliant men, he determined to leave the northern deserts; andcommanding his people to provide themselves with bows and otherweapons, he began to reduce the neighbouring cities and provincesunder his dominion, in which conquests he placed such justgovernors, that the people were perfectly reconciled to hisauthority. In all his conquests he carried the chief personsalong with him, bestowing upon them provisions and other gifts,and by that means attached them to his person, and continuallyaugmented his power. After sometime, finding himself advanced topower and glory, he sent ambassadors to Umcan, to entreat that hewould bestow his daughter upon him for a wife. Umcan receivedthis message with the utmost indignation, saying to themessengers; "Does my servant presume to demand my daughter?Begone, and tell your master, that if ever he dare to repeat soinsolent a proposal, I will make him die a miserable death."

[2] The original residence of the Moals or Monguis,whom Marco always calls Tartars, appears to have been limited bythe Selinga and lake Baikal on the west, or perhaps reaching tothe Bogdo Altai and Sayanak mountains; the Soilki mountains onthe east dividing them from the Mandshurs, and the Ungar-dagamountains on the south, dividing them from the great empire ofTangut, which they overthrew. Bargu may have been on the Baikal,near which there still is a place called Barsuzin. Of Cursa notrace is to be found in our maps.--E.

[3] Prester-John, Presbyter or Priest, or, as calledby the Germans, Priester Johann, from which our Englishdenomination, was prince of the Naymanni or Karaites, a triberesiding on tke river Kallassui or Karasibi, which, dischargesitself into the Jenisei. His original name is said to have beenTogrul, and for some services to the Chinese in their wars, hewas honoured with the title of 0ng, Uang, or Wang; from whencearose his Tartarian style of Ung-khan, likewise erroneouslywritten Aunaek, or Avenaek-khan. Perhaps this prince may havebeen converted by the Nestorian Christians, and may even havereceived priests orders.--Forst.

It is more probable that he may have belonged to theDalai-lama religion, which some ignorant traveller, fromresemblance in dress, and the use of rosaries in prayer, may havesupposed a Christian sect residing in eastern Scythia.--E.

Zingis seems only to have wanted a reasonable pretence tojustify him in the estimation of his nobles for entering into waragainst Umcan; he therefore immediately levied a great army, withwhich he marched boldly against Umcan, and encamped in a greatplain named Tanduc[4], sending a message to Umcan to defendhimself. Upon this Umcan collected a vast army, with which headvanced into the plains, and pitched his camp within ten milesof that of the Tartars. Zingis commanded his astrologers to shewhim what was to be the event of the approaching battle; on whichthey split a reed into two pieces, on one of which they wrote thename of Zingis, and the name of Umcan on the other, and struckthem separately into the ground, saying to Zingis: "While we readin our holy books, it shall come to pass through the power of theidol, that these two pieces of reed shall fight together, andwhose part shall get the better, to that king shall the victorybe given." The astrologers began to mumble their prayers andincantations, while the multitude stood around to observe theresult; and after some time, the two pieces of reed seemedspontaneously to fight together, and the portion inscribed withthe name of Zingis got the mastery over that of Umcan; and theTartars being encouraged by this prodigy, went into the battlefully assured of victory, which they actually obtained. By thisbattle, in which Umcan was slain, the sovereignty of all Tangutwas transferred to Zingis, who took to wife the daughter ofUmcan. Zingis reigned six years after this, and conquered manyprovinces: But at last, while he endeavoured to take a certaincastle called Thaigin, he approached too near the walls, and waswounded in the knee by an arrow, of which wound he died, and wasburied in the mountain of Altai. Zingis was the first kingof the Tartars; the second was Khen-khan, the third Bathyn-khan,the fourth Esu-khan, the fifth Mangu-khan, the sixth Kublai-khan,whose power is greater than that of all his predecessors, as,besides having inherited all their acquisitions, he has addedalmost the whole world to his empire, during a long andprosperous reign of sixty years[5]. All the great khans andprinces of the blood of Zingis, are carried for burial to themountains of Altai, even from the distance of an hundred daysjourney; and those who attend the body, kill all whom they meetby the way, ordering them to go and serve their lord in the otherworld, and a great number of fine horses are slain on the sameoccasion and pretence. It is said that the soldiers, whoaccompanied the body of Mangu-khan to the mountain of Altai, slewabove ten thousand men during their journey.

[4] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst.

[5] According to the genealogical history of theTartars by Abulgasi Bayadur-khan, Ugadai-khan succeeded Zingis in1230. In 1245 he was succeeded by his son Kajuk-khan, calledKhen-khan by Marco in the text. To him Mangu-khan succeeded in1247, who held the empire till 1257; when he was succeeded byKoplai or Kublai-khan, who reigned thirty-five years, and died in1292.--Harris.

Marco probably dated the reign of Kublai-khan, which heextends to sixty years, from his having received a greatdelegated government, a long time before he became great khan, oremperor of the Tartars.--E.

The Tartar women are remarkably faithful to their husbands,considering adultery as the greatest and most unpardonable ofcrimes; yet it is accounted lawful and honest for the men to haveas many wives as they can maintain, but the first married isalways accounted the principal and most honourable. These wiveslive all in one house, in the utmost harmony and most admirableconcord; in which they carry on various manufactures, buy andsell, and procure all things necessary for their husbands andfamilies, the men employing themselves only in hunting andhawking, and in martial affairs. They have the best falcons inthe world, and great numbers of excellent dogs, and they liveupon flesh and milk, and what they procure by hunting. They eatthe flesh of horses and camels, and even of dogs, if fat; andtheir chief drink is cosmos, made of mares milk in a particularmanner, and very much resembling white wine. When the father of afamily dies, the son may marry all his fathers wives, except onlyhis own mother, neither do they marry their sisters; and on thedeath of a brother, the surviving brother may marry the widow ofthe deceased. The husbands receive no portions with their wives,but must assign sufficient dowries to their wives and mothers. Asthe Tartars have many wives, they often have great numbers ofchildren; neither is the multitude of their wives veryburthensome, as they gain much by their labour, and they areexceedingly careful in the management of family concerns, in thepreparation of food, and in all other household duties.

The Tartars feed many herds of cattle, and numerous flocks ofsheep, and great numbers of camels and horses. They remain withthese during the summer in the pastures of the mountains andcolder regions of the north, where they find abundance of grassand wood; but in winter they remove into the warmer regions ofthe south, in search of pasture, and they generally travelforwards for two or three months together. Their houses are madeof slender rods covered with felt, mostly of a round form, andare carried along with them in carts or waggons with four wheels,and the doors of these moveable houses are always placed frontingthe south. They have also very neat carts on two wheels, coveredso closely with felt, that the rain cannot penetrate, in whichtheir wives and children and household goods are conveyed fromplace to place. All these are drawn by oxen or camels.

The rich Tartars are clothed in sables and ermines, and otherrich furs, and in cloth of gold, and all their apparel andfurniture is very costly. Their arms are bows, swords,battle-axes, and some have lances; but they are most expert inthe use of the bow, in which they are trained from their infancy.They are hardy, active, and brave, yet somewhat cruel; areexceedingly patient and obedient to their lords, and will oftenremain two days and nights armed on horseback without rest. Theybelieve in one supreme God of heaven, to whom they daily offerincense, praying to him for health and prosperity. But everyperson has a little image covered with felt, or something else,in his house, called Natigay; and to this household godthey make a wife, which is placed on his left hand, and children,which are set before his face. This image or idol is consideredas the god of earthly things, to whom they recommend theprotection of their wives and children, their cattle, corn, andother valuables. This god is held in great reverence, and beforeeating any thing themselves, they anoint the mouth of the idolwith the fat of their boiled meat, and they cast some broth outof doors in honour of other spirits; after which they eat anddrink their fill, saying, that now their god and his family havehad their due portion.

If the son of one Tartar, and the daughter of another dieunmarried, the parents meet together and celebrate a marriagebetween their deceased children. On this occasion they draw up awritten contract, and paint representations of men and women forservants, of horses, camels, cattle, and sheep, of clothes of allkinds, and of paper money; and all these things are burned alongwith the contract, conceiving that these will all follow theirchildren substantially to the other world to serve them, and thatthey will be there united in affinity, as if they had beenactually married while living.

When the Tartars go to war, the prince usually leads an armyof not less than an hundred thousand men, all cavalry; each manhaving usually eight or more horses or mares. Their troops areregularly distributed into bands of tens, hundreds, thousands,and ten thousands; a troop of an hundred is called a Tuc,and a body of ten thousand is called a Toman. They carrythem felt houses along with them, for shelter in bad weather.When necessity requires, they will ride for ten days togetherwithout victuals, subsisting upon the blood of their horses, bycutting a vein and sucking the blood. But they likewise preparedried milk, for taking with them in their expeditions, in thefollowing manner: After taking off the cream, which is made intobutter, they boil the milk and dry it in the sun into a kind ofhard curd, of which every man in the army carries about tenpounds along with him. Every morning they take about half a poundof this curd, which they put into a leathern bottle with aquantity of water, and as he rides along, the motion of the horseshakes and mixes these together, and this mess suffices for thefood of one day. When they approach towards the enemy, they sendout numerous scouts on all sides, that they may not be assaultedunawares, and to bring intelligence of the numbers, motions, andposture of the enemy. When they come to battle, they ride aboutin apparent disorder, shooting with their arrows; and sometimesmake a show of precipitate flight, discharging their arrowsbackwards as they fly; and when by these means they have brokenor dispersed the enemy, they suddenly rally their forces, andmake an unexpected assault, which generally decides the victory,their horses being all so thoroughly under command, as to turnany way merely by a signal.

If any Tartar steals a thing of small value, he is not put todeath, but receives a certain number of blows with a cudgel,according to the measure of the offence; either seven, orseventeen, or twenty-seven, thirty-seven, or forty-seven; thoughsome die through the severity of this cudgelling. But if any onesteal a horse or other thing of great value, for which hedeserves to die according to their laws, he is cut asunder with asword, unless he redeem his life by restoring the theft ninefold. Such as have horses, oxen, or camels, brand them with theirparticular marks, and send them to feed in the pastures without akeeper.

Leaving the city of Caracarum, and the mountain Altai, weenter the champaign country of Bargu[6], which extends northwardsfor about fifty days journey. The inhabitants of this country arecalled Medites[7], and are subject to the great, khan, andresemble the Tartars in their manners. They have no corn or wine,and employ themselves chiefly, during summer, in the chase ofwild beasts, and in catching birds, on the flesh of which theysubsist in winter; and they have great abundance of a kind ofstags, which they render so tame that they allow themselves to beridden. In the winter this country is so excessively cold, thatfowls, and all other living things, remove to warmer regions.After forty days journey we arrive at the ocean, near which is amountain frequented by storks, and fine falcons, as a breedingplace, and from whence falcons are brought for the amusem*nt ofthe great khan.

[6] Bargu-fin, or Bargouin, is the name of a river onthe east side of lake Baikal, on which is a town or village namedBarguzin, or Barguzinskoy Ostrog, signifying the town of theBurguzians. But by the description in the text, Marco appears tohave comprehended the whole north-east of Tartary, to the northof the Changai mountains, under the general name of Bargu, inwhich he now includes Curza, mentioned separately at thecommencement of the preceding Section, and where the situation ofBargu has been already more particularly described in anote.--E.

[7] Metrites, Mecl*tes, or Markaets.--Forst. No suchappellation is to be found in modern geography; but thediscontinuance of the designations, of temporary and continuallychanging associations of the wandering tribes of the desert, isnot to be wondered at, and even if their records were preserved,they would be altogether unimportant.--E.

SECTION IX.

Of the vast Countries to the North of Tartary, and manyother curious Particulars.

We now return to Campion, or Kantcheou, on the riverEtziné. Proceeding thence five days journey towards theeast, we come to the country of Erginul[1] in the province ofTangut, which is subject to the great khan. In this kingdom thereare many idolaters, with some Nestorians and Turks. It containsmany cities and castles, the chief place being of the same namewith the province.

[1] Erigrinul, Eriginul, Erdschi-nur; and this oughtto be read fifty days south-west, instead of five dayseast.--Forst. This may probably be some district in the countryof the Eluts of Kokonor, not mentioned in our modernmaps.--E.

Going south-east from this place towards Kathay, we come tothe famous city of Cinguy[2], situated in a province of the samename, which is tributary to the great khan, and is contained inthe kingdom of Tangut. Some of the people are Christians, some ofthem Mahometans, and others are idolaters. In this country thereare certain wild cattle, nearly as large as elephants, with blackand white hair, which is short all over the body, except on theshoulders, where it is three spans long, exceedingly fine, purewhite, and in many respects more beautiful than silk. I broughtsome of this hair to Venice as a rarity. Many of these oxen aretamed and broke in for labour, for which they are better adapted,by their strength, than any other creatures, as they bear veryheavy burdens, and when yoked in the plough will do twice thework of others. The best musk in the world is found in thisprovince, and is procured from a beautiful animal, the size of agoat, having hair like a stag, the feet and tail resembling anantelope, but has no horns; it has two teeth in the upper jaw,above three inches long, as white as the finest ivory[3]. Whenthe moon is at the full, a tumor, or imposthume, grows on thebelly of this animal, resembling a bladder filled with blood, andat this time people go to hunt this animal for the sake of thisbag or swelling, which they dry in the sun, and sell at a highprice, as it is the best of musk. The flesh also of the animal isgood for eating. I, Marco, brought the head and feet of one ofthese animals to Venice.

[2] Singui, Sigan, or Singan-fou, in the Chineseprovince of Shensee. --Forst.

[3] In the edition of Harris, it is said likewise tohave two similar tusks in the lower jaw, but this error must havebeen put in by some ignorant editor.--E.

The people of this country of Singui live by trade andmanufacture, and they have abundance of corn. They are idolaters,having fat bodies, small noses, black hair, and no beard, excepta few scattered hairs on their chins. The women are exceedinglyfair, and the men rather make choice of their wives by theirbeauty than by their nobility or riches; so, that when a greatnobleman marries a poor but beautiful wife, he has often toassign a large dowery to obtain the consent of the mother. Thisprovince extends twenty-five days journey in length, and is veryfertile. In it there are exceedingly large pheasants, with tailseight or ten handbreadths long, and many other kinds of birds,some of which have very beautiful and finely variegatedplumage.

After eight days farther travel to the east, we come to thedistrict of Egrigaia[4], which is still in the kingdom of Tangut,and subject to the great khan; it contains many cities andcastles, Calacia being the principal city, which is inhabited byidolaters, though the Nestorian Christians have three churches.In this city, excellent camblets are manufactured from, whitewool, and the hair of camels[5] which are exported by themerchants to all parts of the world, and particularly toKathay.

[4] According to Forster, this passage is corrupted,and ought to be thus read: "After eight days journey westfrom Ergimul or Erdschi-nur, we come to Erigaia, Eggaya Organum,or Irganekon." And he names the chief town Calacia, Cailac,Gailak, or Golka.--Forst.

[5] Perhaps, the chamois are here meant, and copiedcamels by mistake. --Forst.

East from this province of Egrigaia is that of Tandach[6], inwhich there are many cities and castles. The king of this nationis called George, who is a Christian and a priest[7], and most ofthe people also are Christians; he is descended of Prester John,formerly mentioned under the name of Umcan, from whom he is thefourth in descent, and he pays tribute to the great khan; andever since the battle in which Umcan was slain by Zingis, thegreat khans have given their daughters in marriage to the kingsof this country, who do not possess all the dominions which wereformerly subject to Prester John. There is a mixed race in thiscountry, called Argons, descended of idolaters and Mahometans,who are the handsomest people in these parts, and are mostingenious manufacturers and cunning merchants. This province wasthe chief residence of Prester John, and there are twoneighbouring districts, called Ung and Mongol by the natives,which the people of Europe call Gog and Magog.

[6] Tenduc, Tenduch, Teuduch.--Forst

[7] This foolish story of Prester John has beenexplained in a former note.--E.

Travelling eastwards for seven days towards Kathay, there aremany cities, inhabited by idolaters, Mahometans, and Nestorians,who live by commerce and manufactures, and who make stuffswrought with gold and flowers, and other silken stuffs of allkinds, and colours like those made among us, and also woollencloths of various kinds. One of these towns is Sindicin, orSindacui, where very excellent arms of all kinds fit for war aremanufactured. In the mountains of this province, called Idifa, orYdifu, there are great mines of silver.

Three days journey from Sindicin stands another city, namedIangamur[8], which signifies the White Lake. Near this place, thekhan has a palace, in which he takes great delight, as he hasfine gardens, with many lakes and rivers, and multitudes ofswans, and the adjacent plains abound in cranes, pheasants,partridges, and other game. There are five sorts of cranes here,some of which have black wings, others are white and bright;their feathers being ornamented with eyes like those of apeaco*ck, but of a golden colour, with beautiful black and whitenecks; a third kind is not unlike our own, in size andappearance; the fourth kind is very small and beautiful,variegated with red and blue; the fifth is very large, and of agrey colour, with black and red heads. In a valley near thiscity, there are astonishing numbers of quails and partridges, forthe maintenance of which the khan causes millet and other seedsto be sown, that they may have plenty of food; and a number ofpeople are appointed to take care that no person may catch any ofthese birds, which are so tame, that they will flock around theirkeepers at a whistle, to receive food from their hands. There arealso a great number of small huts built, in different parts ofthe valley, for shelter to these birds, during the severity ofwinter, where they are regularly fed by the keepers. By thesemeans, when the emperor chooses to come to this part of thecountry, he is certain to find abundance of game; and duringwinter, he has great quantities sent to him on camels, or otherbeasts of burden.

[8] Cianga-nor, Cianganior, Cyangamor, or Tsahan-nor,in lat. 45°. 30. N. long. 117°. E. Marco, in theseaccounts of the different districts of Tangut, seems to havefollowed no regular order, but goes from one to another, as fancyor memory served.--Forst.

Three days journey south-west from Iangamur is the city ofCiandu[9], which was built by the great emperor Kublai-khan, andin which he had a palace erected, of marvellous art and beauty,ornamented with marble and other rare stones. One side of thispalace extends to the middle of the city, and the other reachesto the city wall. On this side there is a great inclosed park,extending sixteen miles in circuit, into which none can enter butby the palace. In this inclosure there are pleasant meadows,groves, and rivers, and it is well stocked with red and fallowdeer, and other animals. The khan has here a mew of about twohundred ger-falcons, which he goes to see once a-week, and hecauses them to be fed with the flesh of fawns. When he rides outinto this park, he often causes some leopards to be carried onhorseback, by people appointed for this purpose, and when hegives command, a leopard is let loose, which immediately seizes astag or deer; and he takes great delight in this sport.

[9] Cyandi, Xandu, or Tshangtu.--Forst.

In the middle of a fine wood, the khan has a very eleganthouse built all of wood, on pillars, richly gilt and varnished;on every one of the pillars there is a dragon gilt all over, thetail being wound around the pillar, while the head supports theroof, and the wings are expanded on each side. The roof iscomposed of large canes, three hand breadths in diameter, and tenyards long, split down the middle, all gilt and varnished, and soartificially laid on that no rain can penetrate. The whole ofthis house can be easily pulled down and taken to pieces, like atent, and readily set up again, as it is all built of cane, andvery light; and when it is erected, it is fastened by two hundredsilken ropes, after the manner of tent cords, to prevent it frombeing thrown down by the winds. Every thing is arranged in thisplace for the pleasure and convenience of the khan, who spendsthree months here annually, in June, July, and August; but on thetwenty-eighth day of August he always leaves this, to go to someother place, for the performance of a solemn sacrifice. Always onthe twentieth day of August, he is directed by the astrologersand sorcerers, to sprinkle a quantity of white mares milk, withhis own hands, as a sacrifice to the gods and spirits of the airand the earth, in order that his subjects, wives, children,cattle, and corn, and all that he possesses, may flourish andprosper. The khan has a stud of horses and mares all pure white,nearly ten thousand in number; of the milk of which none arepermitted to drink, unless those who are descended fromZingis-khan, excepting one family, named Boriat, to whomthis privilege was granted by Zingis, on account of their valour.These white horses are held in such reverence, that no one darego before them, or disturb them in their pastures.

There are two sects of idolatrous priests, called Chebeth andChesmu, who ascend the roof of the palace in the midst of storms,and persuade the people they are so holy, that they can preventany rain from falling on the roof. These people go about in avery filthy condition, as they never wash or comb themselves.They have also an abominable custom of eating the bodies ofmalefactors who are condemned to death, but they do not feed onany who die naturally. These are likewise called Bachsi, which isthe name of their order, as our friars are named predicants,minors, and the like. These fellows are great sorcerers, and seemto be able to do any thing they please by magic art. When thegreat khan sits in his hall at a table, which is raised severalfeet above the others[10], there is a great sideboard of plate atsome distance in the midst of the hall, and from thence thesesorcerers cause wine or milk to fill the goblets on the khanstable, whenever he commands. These Bachsi also, when they have amind to make feasts in honour of their idols, send word to thekhan, through certain officers deputed for the purpose, that iftheir idols are not honoured with the accustomed sacrifices, theywill send blights on the fruits of the ground, and murrains amongthe beasts, and entreat, therefore, that he will order a certainnumber of black-headed sheep, with incense, and aloes-wood, to bedelivered to them, for the due and honourable performance of theregular sacrifices.

[10] In Harris, the elevation is said to beeighty feet, perhaps a typographical error for eight, as,in a subsequent passage, the table of the khan is merely said tobe higher than those of the rest who have the honour to dinealong with him; the particular height, therefore, is leftindeterminate in the text.--E.

These priests have vast monasteries, some of which are aslarge as small cities, and several of them contain about twothousand monks, or persons devoted to the service of the idols,all of whom shave their beards and heads, and wear particulargarments, to denote that they are set apart from the laity, forthe service of their gods; yet some of them may marry. In theirsolemnities, these men sing the praises of their idols, and carrylights in their processions. Some of them, called Sensim, orSantoms, lead an austere life, eating nothing but meal mingledwith water, and when all the flour is expended, they contentthemselves with the bran, without any savoury addition. These menworship the fire, and those who follow other rules, allege thatthese austere Santoms are heretics against the religious law,because they refuse to worship idols, and never marry. TheseSantoms shave their heads and beards, wear coarse hempen garmentsof a black, or bright yellow colour, sleep on coarse thick mats,and live the severest life imaginable, amid every conceivabledeprivation and austerity[11].

[11] In all ages of the world, except the social, yetirrational ancient superstitions of Greece and Rome, mankind havevainly thought to propitiate the Almighty beneficence, byridiculous acts of austere self-torment; and even the ignorant ordesigning followers of the pure and rational religion of Jesus,have copied all the monstrous mummery, and abominable practicesof the heathen, which they have engrafted upon his law of loveand harmony.--E.

SECTION X.

Of the great power of Kublai-khan and various circ*mstancesrespecting his Family, Government, and Dominions.

I now propose to relate the great and marvellous acts ofKublai-khan, the great emperor of the Tartars. His name,expressed in our language, signifies lord of lords, and hecertainly is the greatest prince in cities, people, andtreasures, that ever reigned in the world. He is lineallydescended from Zingis-khan, the first prince of the Tartars,being the sixth emperor of that race, and began to reign in 1256,being then twenty-seven years of age[1] and he has longruled this immense empire, with great gravity and wisdom. He is avery valiant man, strong of body and well exercised in arms, andevinced himself such, in many actions, before he attained toempire, which he effected by his superior wisdom and management,contrary to the will of his brethren. Before his accession, heshewed himself a more valiant soldier, and a wiser general thanever the Tartars had before his time. Yet, since he has swayedthe empire, he has always deputed his sons and other generalsupon military expeditions, and has only since then gone into thefield on the following occasion.

[1] In a former note, it has been mentioned, on theauthority of Abulgazi- khan, himself a descendant of Zingis, andprince, of Khuaresm, that Kublai-khan was only the fifth emperorof the Tartars, and that he ascended the throne in 1257. Thedifference of date in this latter circ*mstance is quiteunimportant, and may have proceeded, either from a different wayof reckoning, or the delay of intelligence from so vast adistance. But Kublai died in 1292, after reigning thirty-fiveyears, according to Abulgazi, and is said to have been theneighty years of age. He must therefore have been forty-five yearsold at his accession, instead of twenty-seven. Harris indeedmentions in, a note, that the age of Kublai in the MSS. and evenin many of the printed editions, was left blank.--E.

In the year 1257, or 1258, his uncle[2] named Naiam, beingthen thirty years of age, who had the command of so manycountries and nations, that he could easily have mustered 400,000horse, became puffed up with youthful vanity, determined to takeaway the empire from his lord, and drew into his schemes anothergreat Tartar prince, named Caydu, who was nephew to Kublai, andcommanded on the borders of great Turkey, and who engaged tobring an 100,000 men into the field, in aid of the ambitiousproject of Naiam. Both of these confederates began to gatherforces; but this could not be done so secretly as not to come tothe knowledge of the great khan, who immediately set guards onall the roads into the desert, and assembled all the forces whichlay within ten days journey of Cumbalu[3], the imperialresidence. In twenty days, he had collected an army, amounting to360,000 horse and 100,000 foot, a large part of which vast forcewas composed of huntsmen and falconers, and persons belonging tothe imperial household. With this army, Kublai marched with allexpedition into the province occupied by Naiam, where he arrivedat the end of twenty-five days march altogether unexpectedly, andbefore Naiam had completed his preparations, or had been joinedby his confederate Caydu. After giving his troops two days rest,and having encouraged his men in the confident expectation ofvictory, by means of his astrologers and soothsayers, he advancedtowards the encampment of Naiam, and appeared with his whole armyon a hill, over against the camp of the rebels, who had not evensent out any scouts to procure intelligence.

[2] In Harris, this date is 1286; but as, in a note,this war is said to have occurred on occasion of the election ofKublai to the imperial dignity in 1257, I have ventured torestore what seems to be the true date. Besides Naiam, in 1286,thirty years of age, could not possibly have been the uncle ofKublai.--E.

[3] The new city of Pekin, of whichhereafter.--E.

Kublai-khan was seated on the top of a wooden castle, carriedby four elephants, and filled with archers and cross-bow men,from which the royal standard was displayed, on which thepictures of the sun and moon were pourtrayed. Dividing his armyinto three bodies, he kept one as a reserve on the hill besidehimself, and sent the two wings to attack the army of Naiam, whor*solved to stand the issue of a battle. To every ten thousandhorse in the army of Kublai, five hundred light armed footmenwith lances were assigned, who had been taught to leap up behindthe horsem*n on any occasion when flight or retreat becamenecessary, and were instructed to alight, and kill the horses ofthe enemy during battle. The two armies joined in a wellcontested battle, which lasted from morning till mid-day, whenNaiam was made prisoner, and all his followers submittedthemselves to the clemency of the victor; and having renewedtheir oaths of allegiance, were pardoned and dismissed, having anew governor set over them, in whose fidelity the great khancould confide[4].

[4] The followers of Naiam in this rebellion are saidto have consisted of four nations, or tribes of Tartars, namedCiazza, Cadi, Barscol, and Sitinqui, but of whom no otherinformation or notice remains.--E.

Naiam was ordered to be sewed up between two carpets, andtossed up and down till he died, to avoid shedding the blood ofany one belonging to the imperial house of Zingis.

Naiam is said to have been secretly baptized, and to haveprofessed himself a Christian, having his principal ensign markedwith the sign of the cross, and to have had a great number ofChristians in his army who were all slain. On this occasion, theJews and Mahometans, who served in the army of Kublai, upbraidedhis Christian soldiers with the disaster which had happened tothe cross in this battle. The Christians complained to Kublai ofthis injurious conduct, who sharply reproved the Jews andMahometans for their behaviour; then turning to the Christians,he addressed them as follows: "Surely your God and his crosswould not give aid to Naiam. Be not you therefore ashamed of whathas happened; seeing that God, who is good and just, did notdefend iniquity and injustice. Naiam was a traitor and a rebel,and sought the aid of your God in his mischievous purpose: Butyour good and upright God would not favour his bad designs."Kublai-khan returned after this great victory to Cambalu; and onEaster day he called the Christians into his presence, and kissedtheir gospel with great reverence, making all his great officersand barons do the same. And he acts in a similar manner on thegreat festivals of the Mahometans, Jews [5], and heathens; thatSegomamber-khan, the great god of the idol, Mahomet, Moses, andJesus, or whosoever is greatest in heaven, may be favourable tohim; yet he made the best shew of liking to the Christian faith,but alleged that the ignorance of the Nestorian priests, and thegreat interest of the sorcerers among the people, hindered himfrom making a profession of Christianity.

[5] This is the only notice of the Jews in the eastby Marco Polo, and serves considerably to confirm theauthenticity of Rabbi Banjamin; who, as a Jew, felt more interestin attending to his countrymen.--E.

For the better rewarding his brave and faithful soldiers, thekhan has a military council, composed of twelve Tartar barons,who give him notice of the meritorious services of allcommanders, that they may be promoted to higher stations, givingto one the command of an hundred, to another the command of athousand, and to a third the command of ten thousand, and so on.The captain of an hundred men has a badge or tablet of silver;the captain of a thousand has a tablet of gold or silver gilt;and the commander of ten thousand has a tablet of gold,ornamented with the head of a lion. These tablets differ in sizeand weight, according to the dignity of the wearers. On eachtablet there is an inscription of the following import: "By thestrength and power of the Almighty God, and by the grace which Hehath given to our empire: Let the name of the great khan beblessed, and let all die or be destroyed who will not obey hiscommands." Besides these badges of distinction all officers havecommissions in writing, in which all their duties, privileges,and authorities are recited. When the generals appear in public,they have a cloth or canopy carried over their heads, and theygive audience sitting on chairs of silver. The badge or tablet ofa general, weighs three hundred sagi, or fifty ounces ofgold, laving images of the sun and moon; and such as have therepresentation of a ger-falcon, may take with them a whole armyfor their guard.

Kublai-khan is a comely handsome man of middle stature, with afresh complexion, bright black eyes, a well formed nose, andevery way well proportioned. He has four lawful wives, every oneof whom has the title of empress, and the eldest born son ofthese wives is to succeed him in the empire. Each of theseempresses has her own magnificent palace and peculiar court, andis attended by three hundred women, besides many eunuchs, and thesuite of each extends at least to ten thousand persons. The greatKhan has also many concubines; and every second year he sendsmessengers to a remarkably fair tribe among the Tartars namedVirgut, to make search for die fairest young women amongthem for his use. These messengers usually bring with them fouror five hundred young women, more or less as they see cause.Examiners are appointed to take a view of all their beauties, whofix values upon them in proportion to their various merits, atsixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen, twenty, or more carats;and only those are brought to court whose values reach to acertain appointed rate. On their arrival at Cambalu, otherexaminers again view them, and choose out twenty or thirty of thehandsomest for the chambers of the khan. Those who are thusselected, are placed for some time under the care of some of thewives of the great barons about the court, who are directed toreport whether they do not snore in their sleep, and if they arenot offensive in smell or behaviour. Such as are finallyapproved, are divided into parties of five; and one such partyattends in the chamber of the khan for three days and nights intheir turn, while another party waits in an adjoining chamber toprepare whatever the others may command them. Those who are lessprized in the course of these rigid examinations of theirqualities, are employed in cookery or other offices about thepalace, or are bestowed by the khan on his favoured officers,with large portions. The men of the country from whence theseyoung women are brought, deem it a great honour when theirdaughters are found worthy of the khans regard, and esteemthemselves unfortunate when they are rejected at court.

Kublai had twenty-two sons by his four legitimate wives, andthe first born of his first wife, named Zingis, would havesucceeded him in the empire if he had not died before his father.Zingis left a son named Timur, who is a wise and valiant princeof great military experience, and who is destined to succeed hisgrandfather on the imperial throne, instead of his deceasedfather. By his concubines he has twenty-five sons, all of whomare daily exercised in martial employments, and are all promotedto high military posts and governments. Seven of his sons by hislawful wives are kings of great provinces, and rule the countriescommitted to their charge with great prudence and discretion.

SECTION XI.

Account of the Imperial City of Cambalu, and the Court ofthe Great Khan, or Emperor of the Tartars.

During the three winter months of December, January, andFebruary, Kublai-khan generally resides in Cambalu[1] which is atthe north-east border of Kathay. On the north part of the newcity stands the great palace of the khan. In the first place is agreat wall surrounding a vast square enclosure, each side beingeight miles in length; the wall is environed on the outside by adeep ditch, and has a great gate in the middle of each side.Within this outer wall, there is another exactly a mile distant,each side of the square which it forms being six miles; and inthe space between these two walls the soldiers attend and performtheir exercises and evolutions. This inner square has three gateson its south side, and the same number on the north; the middlegate of both these sides being greater and more magnificent thanthe others, and is appropriated to the sole use of the khan, theothers being open to all who have a right to pass. In each cornerof this second wall, and in the middle of each side, there arevery large and magnificent buildings, eight in all, which areappropriated as storehouses or arsenals for keeping the warlikeweapons and furniture belonging to the khan: as horse trappingsof all kinds in one; bows and arrows and cross-bows in a second;helmets, cuirasses, and leather armour in a third; and so on inthe rest. Within this second circuit, and at a considerabledistance, there is a third wall, likewise square, each side beinga mile in length; this wall being ten paces high and very thick,with white battlements, has six gates as in the second wall.Between this third wall and the former there is an extensivepark, with many fine trees and large meadows, well stocked withdeer and other game, and the roads are raised two cubits abovethe meadows, to save the grass from being trodden. All of thispark is kept in the finest order imaginable. In the four angles,and in the middle of each side of this interior wall, there areeight large and magnificent buildings, in which the khansprovisions, and other things belonging to the court, are storedup.

[1] The proper name of this place is Kan-balgassan,or, for shortness, Khan-balga, signifying the city of the khan.Arabian authors have changed it to Khan-balick or Khan-baligh;and the Italians to Chanbalig, Chanbalu, Cambalu, and evenGamelecco. The Chinese call this northern part of the imperialcity King-tshing, which has the same meaning with the Tartarname, and may be translated Kingstown. Pe-king, the other part ofthe same city, signifies the northern court orresidence.--Forst.

Within this last wall is the palace of the great khan, whichis the largest and most magnificent of any in the world[2],extending the whole way between the north and south walls of theinner circuit, except an opening of sufficient width for thepassage of the soldiers and barons attending the courts Thepalace hath no ceiling[3], but the roof is very high. Thefoundation of the pavement or floor is raised ten palms above theground, and is surrounded by a marble wall of two paces wide,resembling a walk; and at the end of the wall without, there is afair turret ornamented with pillars. In the walls of the hallsand chambers, there are numerous figures of dragons, soldiers,birds and beasts of various kinds, and representations ofbattles, all finely carved and splendidly gilded, and the roof isso richly ornamented, that nothing is to be seen but splendidgold and imagery. In every square of the palace there is a greathall, capable of containing a prodigious multitude of people, andall the chambers are arranged and disposed in the best possiblemanner; the roofs being all richly painted red, green, azure, andall other colours. Behind the palace there are many great roomsand private storehouses, for the treasure and jewels of the khan,for the dwellings of his women, and for various other privatepurposes. Over against the palace of the khan, there is another,which was formerly inhabited by his deceased son Zingis, who helda court in all things resembling that of his father. Near thepalace, and to the north, there is a high artificial mount, amile in circumference, and an hundred paces high, planted withevergreen trees, which were brought from remote places, with alltheir roots, on the backs of elephants: This eminence is calledthe Green Mountain, and is extremely pleasant andbeautiful. Where the earth was taken away to form this mount,there are two lakes corresponding with each other, supplied by asmall river, and well stored with fish; and the passages of thewater are grated in such a manner that the fish cannotescape.

[2] The description of this palace is exceedinglyconfused and unintelligible, most probably from erroneoustranscription and mistakes in translation.--E.

[3] By this obscure expression, it seems to beimplied that there are no upper rooms.--E.

The city of Cambalu is seated on a great river in the provinceof Kathay, or Northern China, and its name signifies the city ofthe prince, having been the royal residence in former times.After the conquest, understanding, from his astrologers, that theinhabitants would rebel, the great khan removed the city to theother side of the river, calling the new city Taidu, which istwenty-four miles in circumference, every side of the squarebeing six miles, and he commanded all the Kathayans to removefrom the old city into the new one. The walls are of earth, tenpaces thick at the bottom, and gradually tapering to three pacesthick at the top, with white battlements. Each side of the squarehas three principal gates, or twelve in all, having sumptuouspalaces built over each; and there are pavilions in all theangles of the wall, where the arms of the garrison are kept,being 1000 men for each gate. The whole buildings of this cityare exactly squared, and all the streets are laid out in straightlines; so that a free prospect is preserved from gate to gate,through the whole city; and the houses are built on each sidelike palaces, with courts and gardens, divided according to theheads of families. In the middle of the whole, there is a noblebuilding, in which a great bell is suspended, after the tollingof which, at a certain hour of the night, no person must go outof his house till the dawn of next morning, except it be for someurgent cause, as for assistance to a woman in labour, and eventhen they must carry lights. On the outside of the walls thereare twelve large suburbs, extending three or four miles inlength, from each gate, and there are more inhabitants in thesesuburbs than within the walls. In these, foreign merchants, andother strangers live, each nation having several storehouses andbazars, in which they lodge and keep their goods. No dead body isallowed to be burnt or buried within the city; but the bodies ofthe idolaters are burned without the suburbs, and the bodies ofall other sects are buried in the same places. On account of thevast multitude of Mahometans who inhabit here, there are above25,000 harlots in the city and suburbs: Over every 100 and every1000 of these, there are chiefs or captains appointed, to keepthem in order, and one general inspector over the whole. When anyambassador or other person, having business with the khan, comesto Cambalu, his whole charges are defrayed from the imperialtreasury, and the general inspector of the harlots provides theambassador, and every man of his family, a change of women everynight at free cost. The guards of the city carry all whom theymay find walking in the streets, after the appointed hour, toprison; and it these persons cannot give a valid excuse, they arebeaten with cudgels, as the Bachsi allege that it is not right toshed mens blood; yet many persons die of this beating.

There are 12,000 horse-guards, called Casitan, who attend onthe person of the khan, more from state than from any suspicionof danger. These have four chief commanders, one to every 3000men; and one commander, with his band of 3000, keeps guard overthe khan for three days and nights, after which he is succeededby another, and so on in regular order.

When the khan holds a solemn court on any particular day offestival, his table is raised higher than all the rest, and isset on the north side of the hall, having his face to the south,his first queen or principal wife being placed on his left hand,and his sons and nephews, and other princes of the blood-royalbeing arranged on his right; but their table is placed so muchlower, that their heads are hardly so high as the khans feet. Theprinces and other lords of the court sit lower still on the righthand; and the ladies being all placed in similar order on theleft, those of the sons and kinsmen of the khan being next to thequeen, and after these, the wives of the lords and officers, eachaccording to their several ranks, in due order. By this means thekhan, as he sits at table, can see all that feast along with himin the hall. There are not tables for all who are admitted to thefeast, but the greatest part of the soldiers and captains sitdown on carpets, where they are served with victuals and drink.At all the doors there are two gigantic fellows with cudgels, whoobserve carefully if any one touches the threshold in going in;and whoever does so, forfeits his garment, or receives a certainnumber of blows of a cudgel. Those who serve the khan, or who sitat his table, have their mouths covered with silken veils, lesttheir breath should touch the meat or drink which he is to use.When he drinks, the damsel who carries the cup kneels down, andthen all the barons and others present kneel likewise, and allthe musicians sound their instruments, till the khan has donedrinking. If I were to describe all the pomp and magnificence ofthese festivals, and all die dainties and delicate dishes whichare served up, I should become prolix and tiresome.

The birth days of their lords are celebrated with greatreverence among the Tartars. That of Kublai-khan, their greatemperor, is held yearly, on the twenty-eighth day of September,and is kept with greater solemnity than any other festival,except that of the new year, which is celebrated on the first dayof February, when the Tartar year commences. On his birth day thegreat khan is clothed in a most splendid robe of cloth of gold,and about 2000 of his barons and soldiers receive, on thisoccasion, silken garments of a golden, colour, and girdleswrought in gold or silver, with each a pair of shoes. Some ofthose who are next to the khan in dignity, wear pearls and jewelsof great value. These splendid garments are only worn on thirteensolemn festivals, corresponding to the thirteen moons or lunarmonths, into which the Tartar year is divided, when all the greatmen of the court are splendidly habited, like so many kings. Thebirth-day of the great khan is celebrated by all the Tartarsthroughout his extensive dominions; and on this day, all thekings, princes, governors, and nobles, who are subject to hisauthority, send presents to him in honour of the day, and intoken of submission. Such as are desirous of obtaining any placeof dignity or office, present their petitions to a council oftwelve barons, appointed for that express purpose; and theirdecision is considered as equivalent to an answer from the khanin person. All the people of the immense dominions whoacknowledge the authority of the great khan, whether Christians,or Jews, Mahometans, Tartars, or Pagans, are bound, on thisanniversary, to pray solemnly to their Gods for the life, safety,prosperity, and health of the great khan.

On the first of February, which is the commencement of theTartar year, the great khan, and all the Tartars, wherever theymay happen to be at the time, observe a very solemn feast; andall of them, both men and women, are desirous, on that occasion,to be clothed in white garments, that fortune may be favourableto them for the remainder of the year. On this occasion, thegovernors of provinces, and rulers of cities, and all who are inoffice or authority, send presents to the khan, of gold, silver,pearls, and precious stones, likewise of many white cloths ofvarious kinds, and other white things, and many white horses. Itis the custom of those who bring presents, if they can, topresent nine times nine of every particular article, whether itbe gold, or silver, or cloths, or horses; and on this occasion,the khan sometimes receives 100,000 horses. On this grandfestival, all the elephants belonging to the great khan, about5000, are brought into the great court of the palace, coveredwith splendid housings of tapestry, wrought with the figures ofvarious kinds of birds and beasts, each of them bearing on theirbacks two chests filled with vessels of gold and silver; and manycamels are paraded on the same occasion, covered over, with finesilken cloths, and loaded with other necessaries for thecourt.

On the morning of this festival of the new year, all thecaptains, barons, soldiers[4], physicians, astrologers, governorsof provinces, generals of armies, and other officers of the greatkhan, assemble before the emperor, in the great hall of thepalace, all placed in due order, according to their rank anddignity, and those who have no place or employment, standwithout, that they may see the ceremonies. One of the heads oftheir priests then rises, and cries out with a loud voice, "Bowdown and adore," on which all who are present bend down theirforeheads to the earth. He then calls out aloud, "God preserveour khan, and grant him long life and happiness;" and all thepeople answer, "God grant this." Then he says, "May God increaseand advance his empire, and preserve all his subjects, in peace,concord, and prosperity;" and the people say, "God grant this ourprayer." All this is repeated four times. Then the chief priestgoes forwards to a red table or altar, richly adorned, on whichthe name of the khan is written; and taking a censer, containingrich spices and perfumes, he perfumes the altar or table withgreat reverence, in honour of the khan, and returns to his placein the assembly. After the conclusion of this ceremony, thevarious gifts which have been already mentioned are presented tothe khan. And then the tables are prepared, and a most solemn andsplendid dinner is served up, of which all the assistants, withtheir wives, partake, eating and drinking with great joy, asformerly described. In the course of this solemn feast, a tamelion is led up to the khan, which lies down at his feet as gentleas a whelp, acknowledging and caressing his lord.

[4] The soldiers mentioned here and in other places,as present in the great hall upon solemn occasions, can only meanthe officers of the military actually on guard over the person ofthe khan at the time. --E.

In those three winter months during which the khan resides inCambalu, viz. December, January, and February, all the imperialhuntsmen who are maintained in the provinces contiguous toKathay, employ themselves continually in hunting, and bring allthe larger wild beasts, such as stags, deer, roe-bucks, bears,and wild-boars, to their governors or masters of the game; and ifwithin thirty days journey of Cambalu, all these are sent inwaggons to the court, being first embowelled; but such as are ata greater distance, send only the skins, which are used in makinghousings and other military articles.

The khan has many leopards, wolves, and even lions, trainedfor hunting. These lions are larger than those which are foundnear Babylon, and are variegated with small spots of white,black, and red. They are bred to catch bears, boars, stags,roe-bucks, wild asses, and wild bulls, and it is wonderful to seetheir dexterity and fierceness in the chase. When these lions aretaken out to hunt, they are carried in waggons, two together,accompanied by a dog, with which they are familiar. They aremanaged in this manner, because of their fierce and unrulydisposition, and they must be drawn towards the game against thewind, otherwise the beast would scent them and fly away. Thereare also many tame eagles, so trained as to take hares,roe-bucks, deers, and foxes; and some of these will even seizeupon wolves, and vex them so grievously, that the men may takethem without danger. For the conduct of the imperial hunt, thereare two great officers called Ciurco, or masters of the game, whoare brothers, named Boyan and Mingan, each of whom have thecommand of 10,000 men; those who belong to one of these divisionsbeing clothed in red, and the others in sky blue; and they keepvarious kinds of dogs, such as mastiffs and others, for hunting,to the number of 5000 or more. When the khan goes to hunt, one ofthese great companies of hunters stretches out on his right hand,and the other on his left, occupying the plain country to thebreadth of a whole days journey, so that no beast can escapethem; and when they have collected the game into a circle, it isdelightful to see the khan going into the middle, with numbers ofdogs, which hunt down the harts and bears, and other wild beasts.The masters of the game are bound by their commissions to send tocourt, between the beginning of October and end of March, 1000head of beasts, besides birds of various kinds, and fish, thebest they can procure.

SECTION XII.

Of the Magnificence of the Court of the Great Khan, and ofthe Manners and Customs of his Subjects.

In the beginning of March the great khan departs from Cambalu,and proceeds north towards the ocean[1], which is at the distanceof two days journey, accompanied by 10,000 falconers, withfalcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and other birds of prey, that aretrained to the sport. These falconers disperse themselves incompanies of 100 or 200 together, and most of the birds that aretaken are brought to the khan; who, on account of the gout, whichhas disabled him from riding, sits in a wooden house, coveredwith lions skins, and hung within with cloth of gold, which iscarried on the backs of two elephants. For his particularrecreation, he is accompanied by twelve choice hawks, carried bytwelve nobles, many other noblemen and soldiers attending him.When any cranes, or pheasants, or other birds are seen, notice isgiven to the falconers who are near the khan, and by these to thekhan himself, who then orders his travelling house to be removed,and the hawks to be flown at the game, and he, sitting in hisbed, enjoys the sport. Ten thousand men attend the khan, whodisperse two and two together, to mark where the falcons fly,that they may assist them when needful, and bring back them, andtheir game to the khan. These men are called Tascoal,which signifies watchmen or marksmen, and have a peculiar whistleby which they call in the hawks and falcons, so that it is notnecessary that the falconers who let fly the hawks should followthem, as these tascoal are busily employed in taking up thehawks, and are very careful that none of them be hurt or lost.Every hawk has a small plate of silver attached to the foot, onwhich is the peculiar mark of its master, that each may berestored to its right owner. But if the mark be lost, or cannotbe known, the hawk is delivered to a certain baron, whose name ofoffice is Bulangazi, to whom all lost things whatever must bebrought, otherwise the finder would be punished as a thief; andto the Bulangazi all who have lost any thing make application.This man is distinguished by a peculiarly conspicuous ensign,that he may be easily found out in so numerous an assemblage.

[1] The deserts or Tartarian wastes are probablymeant in this passage.--E.

While thus busily employed in hawking, the royal retinue cameat length to a great plain called Carzarmodin, where the tents ofthe khan and all the courtiers are pitched, to the number of10,000 or more. The grand pavilion of the khan is so large, that10,000 men might stand within it, besides barons and noblemen. Itis placed with its entrance to the south, supported uponcuriously carved pillars, and is covered on the outside with theskins of lions and other wild beasts, to keep out the rain; butthe whole inside is lined with sables and ermines, to an immensevalue. For so precious are these skins esteemed, that asufficient number to make one garment only will sometimes cost2000 gold sultanies, and the Tartars call the sable the queen offurs. All the cords of the imperial pavilions are of silk. Aroundthis there are other pavilions for the sons, wives, andconcubines of the khan. At a farther distance there are tents forthe falcons, ger-falcons, hawks, and other birds of game; and thewhole encampment seems at a distance like a great city, or thestation of a large army. The khan remains all the month of Marchin that plain, employed in hawking; and the multitude of beastsand fowls which are taken in that time is quite incredible. Fromthe beginning of March to the month of October, no person ispermitted to hunt within five days journey of this plain ofCarzarmodin in one direction, ten in another, and fifteen in athird, nor to keep any hawk or hunting dog, neither to use anydevice or engine whatever, for taking any stag, deer, roe-buck,hare, or other game, lest the breed should be injured; by whichmeans the game is always in great abundance.

It is quite wonderful to behold what numbers of merchants andother people, and what astonishing quantities of merchandize andgoods of all sorts are to be seen in Cambalu. The money of thegreat khan is not of gold or silver, or other metal, but of aspecies of paper, which is thus made: They take the middle Darkof the mulberry tree, which they make firm in a particularmanner, and this is cut out into round pieces of various sizes,on which the seal or mark of the khan is impressed. Of this papermoney, an immense quantity is fabricated in the city of Cambalu,sufficient to supply the currency of the whole empire; and noperson, under pain of death, may coin or spend any other money,or refuse to accept of this, in all the kingdoms and countrieswhich are subject to his dominions. All who come into hisdominions are prohibited from using any other money, so that allmerchants coming from countries however remote, must bring withthem gold, silver, pearls, or precious stones, for which theyreceive the khans paper money in exchange: And as that money isnot received in other countries, they must exchange it again inthe empire of the great khan, for merchandize to carry with themon their return. The khan pays all salaries, stipends, and wagesto his officers, servants, and army, in this money, and whateveris required for the service of his court and household is paidfor in the same. By all these means, there is no sovereign in theworld who equals the great khan in extent of treasure; as heexpends none in the mint, or in any other way whatever.

The great khan has a council of war, composed of twelvebarons, as formerly mentioned, who direct all martial affairs,and have the power of promoting or disgracing officers andsoldiers as they think proper. Their office is calledThai, or the high court or tribunal, as no person in theempire is superior to them except the great khan. Other twelvebarons are appointed as counsellors for the thirty-fourprovinces, into which the vast empire of the khan is divided;these have a splendid palace in Cambalu as their office, in whichthere is a judge for each province, and many notaries. Thistribunal chooses proper persons to be appointed governors of theprovinces, and presents their names to the khan for confirmation.They likewise have the charge of the collection and expenditureof the public treasure. The name of their office is Singh,or the second court, which is subordinate only to the khan, yetis considered as less noble than the Thai or militarytribunal.

Many public roads lead from Cambalu to all the neighbouringprovinces; and on every one of these there are inns or lodgings,called lambs, built at the distance of every twenty-fiveor thirty miles, which serve as post- houses, having large faircourts, and many chambers, furnished with beds and provisions,every way fit to lodge and entertain great men, and even kings.The provisions are furnished from the circumjacent country, outof the tributes. At every one of these, there are four hundredhorses, two hundred of which are kept ready for use in thestables, and the other two hundred at grass, each division for amonth alternately. These horses are destined for the use ofambassadors and messengers, who leave their tired horses, and getfresh ones at every stage. In mountainous places, where therewere no villages, the khan has established colonies of about tenthousand people in each, in the neighbourhood of thesepost-houses, that they may cultivate the ground, and supplyprovisions. These excellent regulations extend to the utmostlimits of the empire, in all directions, so that there are aboutten thousand imperial inns or lambs in the whole empire; and thenumber of horses appointed in these, for the service ofmessengers, exceeds two hundred thousand[2]; by which means,intelligence is forwarded to the court without delay, from allparts of the empire. If any person should wonder how so manybeasts and men can be procured and provided for, let him considerthat the Mahometans and pagans have many women, and greatnumbers, of children, some having even so many as thirty sons,all able to follow them armed into the field. As for victuals,they sow rice, panik, and millet, which yield an hundred afterone, and they allow no land that is fit to carry crops to remainuncultivated. As wheat does not thrive in this country it islittle sown, and they use no bread, but feed upon the formerlymentioned grains, boiled in milk, or made into broth along withflesh. Their horses continually increase, insomuch, that everyTartar soldier carries six, eight, or more horses into the fieldfor his own use, which he rides upon in their turns. All citiesthat are adjoining to rivers or lakes, are ordered to haveferry-boats in constant readiness for the posts; and those whichare on the borders of deserts, must supply horses and provisionsfor such as have to pass through these deserts; for whichservice, they are allowed a reasonable compensation from thestate.

[2] Instead of this number, 10,000 post-houses, at400 horses each, would require four millions of horses. Thenumber and proportion of horses in the text would only supply 500inns; or would allow only 20 horses each to 10,000 inns. Thetext, therefore, must be here corrupted.--E.

In cases of great conscience, the messenger has a gerfalconbadge, formerly mentioned, and is so equipped, that he will ride200, or 250 miles in a day and night, being attended in darknights by persons who run along with him on foot, carryinglights. On approaching a post-house, the messenger sounds a horn,that a fresh horse or horses, according to his company, may bebrought out, and ready to mount immediately. These speedymessengers have then bellies, loins, and heads firmly swathed,and they always travel as fast as their horses can go; and suchas are able to endure this excessive riding, are held in greatestimation, as nothing is more admired among the Tartars thangood horsemanship.

Between the lambs, or large post-houses, there areother habitations, at three or four miles distance from eachother, where foot-posts are established, every one of whom hashis girdle hung round with shrill sounding bells. These arealways in readiness; and when dispatched with the khans letters,they convey them with great speed to the next foot-post station,where they hear the sound of the bells from a distance, and someone is always in readiness to take the letters, and to run on tothe next station: Thus, by constant change of swift runners, theletters are conveyed with great dispatch to their destinations.By this means, the khan often receives letters or new fruits intwo days, from the distance often ordinary days journey: As forinstance, fruits growing at Cambalu in the morning, are conveyedto Xandu by the night of the next day. All the people employed inthe posts, besides being exempted from all tribute, have an amplerecompense for their labour from the gatherer of the khans rents.There are inspectors employed, who examine the state and conductof these posts every month, and are empowered to punish those whoare guilty of faults.

The khan sends every year to the different provinces of hisempire, to inquire whether any injuries have been sustained tothe crops by tempests, locusts, worms, or any other calamity; andwhen any province or district has suffered damage, the tribute isremitted for that year, and he even sends corn for food and seedfrom the public granaries: For in years of great abundance, hepurchases large quantities of grain, which is carefully preservedfor three or four years, by officers appointed for the purpose;by which means, when a scarcity occurs in any province, thedefect may be supplied from the granaries of the khan in anotherprovince. On these occasions, he orders his grain to be sold at afourth part of the market price, and great care is taken to keephis granaries always well supplied. When any murrain attacks thecattle of one of the provinces, the deficiency is supplied fromthe tenths which he receives in the other provinces. If any beastor sheep happens to be killed by lightning in a flock or herd, hedraws no tribute from that flock, however great, for three years,under an idea that God is angry with the owner of the herd.

That travellers may discern, and be able to discover the roadin uninhabited places, trees are planted at convenient distances,along all the principal roads; and in the sandy and desertplaces, where trees will not grow, stones and pillars are erectedto direct the passengers, and officers are appointed to see thatall these things are performed. According to the opinion of theastrologers, the planting of trees conduces to lengthen the ageof man, and therefore, the khan is the more induced to encouragetheir propagation by his order and example.

In the province of Cathay, the people make excellent drink ofrice and certain spices, which even excels wine in flavour; andthose who drink too much of it become sooner drunk than withwine[3]. Through this whole province, certain black stones aredug from the mountains, which burn like wood, and preserve fire along time, and if kindled in the evening, will keep on fire allnight[4]; and many people use these stones in preference to wood,because, though the country abounds in trees, there is a greatdemand for wood for other purposes.

[3] This must allude to a species of corn-spirits orbrandy, distilled from rice, fermented with water, namedArrak.--E.

[4] This evidently points out the use of coal innorthern China.--E.

The great khan is particularly attentive to the care of thepoor in the city of Cambalu. When he hears of any honourablefamily that, has fallen to decay through misfortune, or of anywho cannot work, and have no subsistence, he gives orders forissuing a whole years subsistence, together with garments, bothfor winter and summer, to the heads of those distressed families.There is an appropriate office or tribunal for this imperialbounty, to which those who have received the warrants or ordersof the khan apply for relief. The khan receives the tenths of allwool, silk, and hemp, which he causes to be manufactured intostuffs of all kinds, in houses set apart for this purpose; and asall artificers of every description are bound to work for him oneday in every week, he has immense quantities of every kind ofuseful commodity in his storehouses. By these means, likewise,there are similar imperial manufactures in every city of theempire, in which clothing is made from his tithe wool for hisinnumerable soldiers. According to their ancient customs, theTartars gave no alms, and were in use to upbraid those who werein poverty, as hated of God. But the priests of the idolaters,especially those who have been formerly mentioned under the nameof Bachsi, have convinced the khan that charity is a good work,and an acceptable service to God; so that in his court food andraiment are never denied to those who ask, and there is no day inwhich there is less than the value of 20,000 crowns distributedin acts of charily, particularly in rice, millet, and panik; bywhich extensive benevolence the khan is esteemed as a god amonghis subjects.

There are in Cambalu about five thousand astrologers anddiviners, Christians, Mahometans, and Kathayans, all of whom areprovided yearly by the khan in food and raiment. These have anAstrolabe, on which all the signs of the planets are marked,together with the hours, and most minute subdivisions of thewhole year. By this instrument, these astrologers, each religionapart, observe the course of the year, according to every moon,noting the prognostications of the weather, yet always referringto God, to do as they predict or otherwise, according to hispleasure. They write down upon square tablets, calledTacuini, all those things which are to fall out during theyear, which they sell to any who will purchase; and those who aremost fortunate in their predictions are held in the highesthonour. If any one intends to commence an important labour, or toundertake a distant journey, and is anxious to be certified ofthe event, he has recourse to the astrologers to read, as theypretend, his destiny in the heavens, for this purpose, beinginstructed in the precise date of birth of the person consultingthem, they calculate the present aspect of the constellationwhich ruled at his birth, and foretel that good or evil will flowfrom his intentions. The Tartars compute time by cycles of twelvelunar years; calling the first of each series the year of thelion; the second of the ox; the third of the dragon; the fourthof the dog; and so on through the whole twelve, and when theseare gone through, they begin the series anew. Thus, if a man isasked when he was born, he answers that it was on such a divisionof such an hour, day, and moon, in the year of the lion, ox, orso forth. All this their fathers set down exactly in a book.

It has been already said that the Tartars are idolaters. Eachman of any consequence has a table aloft in the wall of one ofhis chambers, on which a name is written, to signify the greatGod of Heaven, whom he adores once each day, with a censer ofburning incense; and lifting up his hands, and thrice gnashinghis teeth, he prays to God to grant him health and understanding;this being the only petition addressed to the Almighty, of whomthey pretend not to make any similitude. But they have a statueor image on the ground, called Natigai, the god of earthlythings, and images of his wife and children. This is likewiseworshipped with incense, gnashing of teeth, and lifting up thehands; and from this, they beg for favourable weather, productivecrops, increase of children, and all manner of worldlyprosperity. They believe the soul to be immortal, and that when aman dies, his soul enters into another body, better or worse,according to the merits or demerits of his former life: As that apoor man becomes a gentleman, then a prince or lord, and sohigher, till at length the soul is absorbed in God. Or if he havedeserved ill, it descends to animate the body of a lower andpoorer man, after that the body of a dog, always descending tothe lowest rank of baseness. In their manners, the language ofthe Tartars is comely; they salute one another with grace andcheerfulness, conducting themselves honestly, and they feed in acleanly manner. They bear great reverence to their parents, andif any one be undutiful or regardless of their necessities, theyare liable to the jurisdiction of a public tribunal, especiallyassigned for the punishment of ungrateful or disobedientchildren. Persons condemned to imprisonment for crimes, aredischarged after three years confinement, when they are marked onthe cheek, that they may be known as malefactors.

All barons or others, who approach within half a mile of theresidence of the great khan, must be still and quiet, no noise orloud speech being permitted in his presence or neighbourhood.Every one who enters the hall of presence, must pull off hisboots, lest he soil the carpets, and puts on furred buskins ofwhite leather, giving his other boots to the charge of servantstill he quits the hall; and every one carries a small coveredvessel to spit in; as no one dare spit in the halls of thepalace.

SECTION XIII.

Some Account of the Provinces of Kathay, or Northern China,and of other neighbouring Countries subject to the GreatKhan[1].

[1] Owing to the prodigious revolutions which havetaken place in the East since the time of Marco, and thedifference of languages, by which countries, provinces, towns,and rivers have received very dissimilar names, it is oftendifficult or impossible to ascertain, with any precision, theexact geography of the relations and descriptions in the text.Wherever this can be done with any tolerable probability ofusefulness it shall be attempted.--E.

Ten miles from Cambalu is a great river called Pulisangan[2],which empties itself into the ocean, and by which many vesselsascend with merchandize to a certain handsome bridge, all builtof serpentine stone, curiously wrought. This bridge is 300 pacesin length, and eight paces broad, so that ten men may rideabreast. It is secured on each side with a wall of marble,ornamented with a row of pillars. The pillar on each side, at thesummit of the bridge, has the image of a great lion on the top,and another at its base; and all the others, which are atintervals of a pace and a half, have figures of lions on theirtops only. After passing this bridge, and proceeding to thewestwards for thirty miles, continually passing throughvineyards, and fertile fields, with numerous palaces on allsides, you come to the fair and large city of Gouza, in whichthere are many idol temples, and in which cloth of gold and silk,and the purest and finest cambrics or lawns, are manufactured. Itcontains many common inns for strangers and travellers; and theinhabitants are very industrious in trade and manufactures. Amile beyond this city, the road divides into two; that to thewest leading through the province of Kathay, and that to thesouth-east towards the province of Mangi, from Gouza to thekingdom of Tain-fu[3]. In this journey, you ride for ten daysthrough Kathay, always finding many fair and populous cities,well cultivated fields, and numerous vineyards, from whence allKathay is supplied with wine; and many plantations of mulberrytrees, for rearing silk worms. Tain-fu is the name of the kingdomor province, and of the chief city, which is large and handsomelybuilt, carrying on much trade, and containing great magazines ofmilitary stores for the khans army. Seven days journey farther tothe west, there is a pleasant country, having many cities andcastles, and carrying on great trade. We then come to a verylarge city, called Pian-fu, in which there is vast abundance ofsilk and much trade.

[2] The Pei-ho, which runs into the gulf of Pekin,near the head of the Yellow sea.--E.

[3] Kathay, or Northern China, contained the sixnorthern provinces, and Mangi or Southern China, the nineprovinces to the south of the river Kiang, Yang-tse-Kiang orKian-ku. Tain-fu may possibly be Ten-gan-fu: Gouza it isimpossible to ascertain, unless it may be Cou-gan, a small town,about thirty miles south from Peking or Cambalu. I suspect in thepresent itinerary, that Marco keeps on the north of the Hoang-ho.--E.

Westwards from Pian-fu, there is a pleasantly situated castlecalled Thaigin, containing a spacious palace with a fine hall, inwhich there are portraits of all the famous kings who havereigned in this country. This castle and palace are said to havebeen built by a king named Dor, who was very powerful, and wasonly attended on by great numbers of young damsels, who used tocarry him about the castle in a small light chariot. Confiding inthe strength of this castle, which he believed impregnable, Dorrebelled against Umcan, to whom he was tributary. But seven ofhis courtiers or attendants, in whom he placed confidence, madehim prisoner one day while hunting, and delivered him to Umcan,who dressed him in mean clothes, and set him under a strong guardto tend his cattle. At the end of two years, Umcan called Dorinto his presence, and after a severe reproof and admonition forhis future obedience, dressed him in princely robes, and sent himback to his kingdom with a powerful escort.

About twenty miles beyond the castle of Thaigin, we come tothe great river Caramaran[4]; which is so broad and deep that ithas no bridge between this place and the ocean. There are manycities, towns, and castles, on the banks of this river, whichcarry on great trade. The country abounds in ginger and silk; andfowls of all kinds, particularly pheasants, are so plentiful,that three of them may be purchased for a Venetian groat. Alongthe banks of this river, there grow vast quantities of greatreeds or hollow canes[5], some of which, are a foot or eighteeninches round, and are applied to many useful purposes. Two daysjourney beyond this river is the famous city of Carianfu, inwhich great quantities of silks and cloth of gold are made. Thiscountry produces ginger, galuigal, spike, and many spices; andthe inhabitants are idolaters. Proceeding seven days journeywestwards, we pass through many cities, and towns, and finefields, and gardens, and everywhere there are plantations ofmulberries for feeding silk-worms, and abundance of wild beastsand fowls. The inhabitants are mostly idolaters, with someChristians, or Nestorians, and Saracens or Mahometans. Continuingthe journey for seven days, we come to a great city calledQuenzanfu, which is the capital of the kingdom of that name, inwhich many famous kings have reigned. At the present timeMangalu, one of the sons of the great khan, has the supremecommand of this kingdom. This country yields great plenty ofsilk, and cloth of gold, and all things necessary for thesubsistence of an army, and the maintenance of its numerousinhabitants. The people are mostly idolaters, but there are someChristians and Mahometans among them. Five miles from the citystands the palace of Mangalu, in a fine plain, watered bynumerous springs and rivulets, and abounding in game. This finepalace, all painted with gold and azure, and adorned withnumberless statues, stands in the middle of a fine park of fivemiles square, surrounded by a high wall, in which all kinds ofbeasts and fowls are to be found in abundance; and in this placeMangalu and his courtiers take great delight to hunt. He followshis fathers excellent example, in conducting his government withgreat equity and justice, and is much beloved and respected bythe people.

[4] Hara-moran, or Hoang-he. Thaigin may therefore beTan-gin, about twenty miles east from that river, in Lat. S6-1/4N. In which case, Pian-fu may be the city of Pin-yang; andTain-fu, Tay-uen.--E.

[5] Bamboos.--E.

Proceeding three days to the westward, from the palace ofMangalu, through a very beautiful plain, adorned with many citiesand castles, which have great abundance of silk and othermanufactures, we come to a mountainous district of the provinceof Chunchian, in the vallies of which there are many villages andhamlets; the inhabitants being idolaters and husbandmen. In thesemountains they hunt lions, bears, stags, roebucks, deer, andwolves. The plain is two days over, and for twenty days journeyto the west, the country is well inhabited, and finelydiversified with mountains, vallies, and woods. At the end ofthese twenty days, there lies, towards the west, a populousprovince called Achbaluch Mangi, or the white city on theborders of Mangi. On entering this province, we find a plain oftwo days journey in extent, and containing a prodigious number ofvillages; beyond which the country is diversified with mountains,vallies, and woods, yet all well inhabited. In these mountainsthere are plenty of wild beasts, among which are the animals thatproduce musk. This province produces rice and other grain, andabundance of ginger. After twenty days journey through thesehills, we come to a plain and a province on the confines ofMangi, called Sindinfu. The city of the same name is very large,and exceedingly rich, being twenty miles in circumference; ofold, this city and province was governed by a race of rich andpowerful kings. On the death of an old king, he left thesuccession among three sons, who divided the city into threeparts, each surrounded by its own wall, yet all contained withinthe former wall of the city; but the great khan subjected thecity and province to his dominion. Through this city and itsenvirons there run many rivers, some half a mile over, and somean hundred paces, all very deep; and on these there are manyhandsome stone bridges, eight paces broad, having marble pillarson each side, supporting wooden roofs, and on every bridge thereare houses and shops. After passing this city, all these riversunite into one great river called the Quian, or Kian, which runsfrom hence one hundred days journey before it reaches the ocean;having many cities and castles on its banks, with innumerabletrading vessels. Proceeding four days journey farther, we passthrough a fine plain, containing many cities, castles, andvillages, and several beautiful green lawns or pastures, in whichthere are many wild beasts.

Beyond this last mentioned plain is the wide country ofThebet, or Thibet, which the great khan vanquished and laidwaste; and in it there are many ruined cities and castles, forthe space of twenty days journey, which has become an uninhabitedwilderness, full of lions and other wild beasts. Those who haveto travel through this country must carry victuals along withthem, and must use precautions to defend themselves against theferocious animals of the desert. Very large canes grow all overthis country, some of which are ten paces long and three palmsthick, and as much between the knots or joints. When travellerstake up their quarters for the night, they take large bundles ofthe greener reeds or canes, which they put upon the top of alarge fire, and they make such a crackling noise in burning as tobe heard for two miles off by which the wild beasts are terrifiedand fly from the place; but it has sometimes happened that thehorses, and other beasts belonging to the merchants ortravellers, have been frightened by this noise, and have run awayfrom their masters: for which reason prudent travellers use theprecaution of fettering or binding their feet together, toprevent them from running off.

SECTION XIV.

An account of Thibet, and several other Provinces, with theObservations made by the Author in passing through them.

At the end of twenty days journey through the before mentioneddepopulated country, we met with cities and many villages,inhabited by an idolatrous people, whose manners are solicentious that no man marries a wife who is a virgin. Hence whentravellers and strangers from other countries come among them,the women of the country who have marriageable daughters bringthem to the tents of the strangers, and entreat them to enjoy thecompany of their daughters so long as they remain in theneighbourhood. On these occasions the handsomest are chosen, andthose who are rejected return home sorrowful and disappointed.The strangers are not permitted to carry away any of thesewilling damsels, but must restore them faithfully to theirparents; and at parting the girl requires some toy or smallpresent, which she may shew as a token of her condition; and shewho can produce the greatest number of such favours has thegreatest chance of being soon and honourably married. When ayoung woman dresses herself out to the best advantage, she hangsall the favours she may have received from her different loversabout her neck, and the more acceptable she may have been to manysuch transitory lovers, so much the more is she honoured amongher countrymen. But after marriage they are never suffered tohave intercourse with strangers, and the men of the country arevery cautious of giving offence to each other in this matter.

The people of this country are idolaters, who live by hunting,yet cultivate the ground, and are much addicted to stealing,which they account no crime; they are clothed in the skins ofwild beasts, or in coarse hempen garments, having no money, noteven the paper money of the khan, but they use pieces of coralinstead of money. Their language is peculiar to themselves. Thecountry of which we now speak belongs to Thibet, which is acountry of vast extent, and has been some time divided into eightkingdoms, in which are many cities and towns, with manymountains, lakes, and rivers, in some of which gold is found. Thewomen wear coral necklaces, which they likewise hang about thenecks of their idols. In this country there are very large dogs,almost as big as asses, which are employed in hunting the wildbeasts, especially wild oxen called Boyamini. In this province ofThibet there are many kinds of spices which are never broughtinto Europe. This, like all the other provinces formerlymentioned, is subject to the great khan.

On the west of the province of Thibet lies the province ofCaindu, which was formerly governed by kings of its own, but isnow ruled by governors appointed by the great khan. By the west,it is not to be understood that these countries are actually inthe west; but that, as we travelled to them from those partswhich are situate between the east and the north-east, andconsequently came thither westwards, we therefore reckon them asbeing in the west[1]. The people are idolaters and have manycities, of which the principal is called Caindu, after the nameof the province, and is built on the frontiers. In this countrythere is a large salt lake, which produces such extraordinaryabundance of white pearls, but not round, that no person isallowed to fish for them under pain of death, without a licencefrom the great khan, lest by becoming too plentiful, the priceshould be too much reduced. There is likewise a mountainproducing turquoises, the digging for which is restrained undersimilar regulations. There are great numbers of the animalscalled gadderi in this province, which produce musk. Thelake which produces pearls is likewise very abundant in fish, andthe whole country is full of wild beasts of many kinds, as lions,bears, stags, deer, ounces, and roebucks, and many kinds ofbirds. Cloves also are found in great plenty, which are gatheredfrom small trees, resembling the bay-tree in boughs and leaves,but somewhat longer and straighter, having white flowers. Thecloves when ripe are black, or dusky, and very brittle. Thecountry likewise produces ginger and cinnamon in great plenty,and several other spices which are not brought to Europe. It hasno wine, but in place of it, the inhabitants make a mostexcellent drink of corn or rice, flavoured with variousspices.

[1] The meaning of this sentence is obscure, unlessit is intended to guard the readers against the supposition thatthese countries were to the west of Europe.--E.

The inhabitants of this country are so besotted to theiridols, that they fancy they secure their favour by prostitutingtheir wives, sisters, and daughters to strangers. When anystranger comes among them, all the masters of families strive toprocure him as a guest, after which, they leave the stranger tobe entertained by the females of the family, and will not returnto their own house till after his departure; and all this is donein honour of their idols, thinking that they secure their favourby this strange procedure. The principal money in this country isgold, unstamped, and issued by weight. But their ordinary moneyconsists in solid small loaves of salt, marked with the seal ofthe prince; and of this merchants make vast profits in remoteplaces, which have abundance of gold and musk, which theinhabitants are eager to barter for salt, to use with theirmeat.

Leaving this province, we proceeded fifteen days journeyfarther, passing through many cities and villages, theinhabitants of which have the same customs with those of Caindu;and at length we came to a river called Brius, which isthe boundary of the province of Caindu. In this river gold dustis found in great abundance, by washing the sand of the river invessels, to cleanse the gold from earth and sand. On the banks ofthis river, which runs direct to the ocean, cinnamon grows ingreat plenty. Having passed the river Brius, we come westwards tothe province of Caraian, which contains seven kingdoms, and isunder the command of Sentamur, as viceroy for his father thegreat khan. This prince is young, rich, wise, and just. Thecountry produces excellent horses, is well peopled and has apeculiar and very difficult language; the inhabitants areidolaters, who live on their cattle and the produce of the earth.After proceeding five days journey through this country, we cameto the great and famous city of Jaci[2]. In this large city thereare many merchants and manufacturers, and many different kinds ofpeople, idolaters, Christians, Nestorians, and Mahometans; butthe great majority are idolaters. It has abundance of corn andrice, but the inhabitants only use bread made from rice, as theyesteem it more wholesome; they make a drink also from rice, mixedwith several kinds of spices, which is very pleasant. They usewhite porcelain instead of money, and certain sea shells forornaments[3]. Much salt is made in this country from the water ofsalt wells, from which the viceroy derives great profit. There isa lake in this country 100 miles in circuit, which has greatquantities of fish. The people of this country eat the raw fleshof beef, mutton, buffalo, and poultry, cut into small pieces andseasoned with excellent spices, but the poorer sort are contentedwith garlic shred down among their meat. The men have noobjections to permit the intercourse of strangers with theirwives, on condition only of being previously asked for theirconsent.

[2] Called Lazi by Pinkerton, from the Trevigiedition of these travels, mentioned in the introduction. Thisplace, therefore, may be Lassa, in the kingdom or province of Ou,in Middle Thibet, the residence of the Dalai Lama, situate on abranch of the Sampoo, or great Brahma-pootra, or Barampooterriver, which joins the Ganges in the lower part ofBengal.--E.

[3] This sentence most probably is meant to imply theuse of cowries, sometimes called porellane shells, both for moneyand ornament.--E.

We departed from Jaci or Lazi, and travelling westwards forten days journey, we came to a province called Carazan after thename of its chief city, which is governed by a son of the greatkhan, named Cogatin[4]. The rivers in this province yield largequantities of washed gold, and, likewise in the mountains, solidgold is found in veins; and the people exchange gold againstsilver, at the rate of one pound of gold for six pounds ofsilver[5]. The ordinary currency of the country is in porcelainshells brought from India. In this country there are very largeserpents, some of which are ten paces long, and ten spans inthickness, having two little feet before, near the head, withthree talons or claws like lions, and very large bright eyes[6].Their jaws have large sharp teeth, and their mouths are so wide,that they are able to swallow a man; nor is there any man, orliving creature, that can behold these serpents without terror.Some of these are only eight, six, or five paces in length. Inthe day-time they lurk in holes to avoid the great heat, goingout only in the night in search of prey, and they devour lions,wolves, or any other beasts they can find, after which they go insearch of water, leaving such a track in the sands, owing totheir weight, as if a piece of timber had been dragged along.Taking advantage of this circ*mstance, the hunters fasten greatiron spikes under the sand in their usual tracks, by means ofwhich they are often wounded and killed. The crows or vulturesproclaim the serpents fate by their cries, on which the hunterscome up and flea the animal, taking out his gall, which isemployed as a sovereign remedy for several diseases, given to thequantity of a pennyweight in wine; particularly against the biteof a mad dog, for women in labour, for carbuncles, and otherdistempers. They likewise get a good price for the flesh, whichis considered as very delicate.

[4] Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, names thecountry Cariam, and the governor Cocagio.--E.

[5] The ordinary European price is about fourteen forone.--E.

This province breeds many stout horses, which are carried bythe merchants into India. They commonly take out a bone from thetails of their horses, to prevent them from being able to lashthem from side to side, as they esteem it more seemly for thetails to hang down. The natives, who are idolaters, use longstirrups in riding, like the French; whereas the Tartars andother nations use short stirrups, because they rise up when theydischarge their arrows. In their wars, they use targets and otherdefensive armour made of buffalo hides; and their offensiveweapons are lances and crossbows, with poisoned arrows. Some ofthem, who are great villains, are said always to carry poisonwith them, that if taken prisoners, they may swallow it toprocure sudden death, and to avoid torture. On which occasion,the great lords force them to swallow dogs dung that they mayvomit up the poison. Before they were conquered by the greatkhan, when any stranger of good appearance happened to lodge withthem, they used to kill him in the night; believing that the goodproperties of the murdered person would afterwards devolve to theinhabitants of the house; and this silly notion has occasionedthe death of many persons.

Travelling still westwards from the province of Carazam, orCariam, we came, after five days journey, to the province ofCardandan, of which the chief city is called Vociam[7]. Theinhabitants, who are subject to the great khan, use porcelainshells, and gold by weight, instead of money. In that country,and many other surrounding provinces, there are no silver mines,and the people give an ounce of gold for five ounces of silver,by which exchange the merchants acquire great profits. The menand women cover their teeth with thin plates of gold, so exactlyfitted, that the teeth seem as if they were actually of solidgold. The men make a kind of lists or stripes round their legsand arms, by pricking the places with needles, and rubbing in ablack indelible liquid, and these marks are esteemed as greatdecorations. They give themselves up entirely to riding andhunting, and martial exercises, leaving all the household caresto the women, who are assisted by slaves, whom they purchase ortake in their wars. Immediately after delivery, the woman leavesher bed and washes the child; after which, the husband lies downin her bed with the child, where he remains for forty days,during all which time, he receives the visits and compliments ofthe friends and neighbours. The wife looks after the house,carries broth to her husband in bed, and suckles the child. Theirwine is made from rice and spiceries; and their ordinary food isrice and raw flesh, seasoned with spiceries or garlic, asformerly mentioned. There are no idols in this province, exceptthat every family adores the oldest man in the house, from whomthey say that they and all they have are come. The countryconsists mostly of wild and rugged mountains; into whichstrangers seldom come, because the air, especially in summer, isexceedingly noxious. They have no letters, but all theircontracts and obligations are recorded by tallies of wood, onecounterpart being kept by each party, and when the contract isfulfilled the tallies are destroyed.

[6] The description of this creature seems toindicate an alligator or crocodile; which probably Marco had notseen, and only describes from an imperfect account of thenatives.--E.

[7] According to Pinkerton, this province is namedCariti, and its principal town Nociam, in the edition ofTrevigi.--E.

There are no physicians in this province or in Caindu, Vociam,or Caraiam; but when any one is sick, the magicians or priests ofthe idols are assembled, to whom the sick person gives an accountof his disease. Then the magicians dance to the sound of certaininstruments, and bellow forth songs in honour of their idols,till at length, the devil enters into one of these who areskipping about in the dance. The dance is then discontinued, andthe rest of the magicians consult with him who is possessed as tothe cause of the disease, and what ought to be done for itsremedy. The devil answers by this person, "because the sickperson has done this or that, or has offended some particularidol." Then the magicians entreat this idol to pardon the sickperson, engaging, if he recover, that he shall offer a sacrificeof his own blood. But if the devil or the priest thinks that thepatient cannot recover, he says that the person has so grievouslyoffended the idol, that he cannot be appeased by any sacrifices.If, on the other hand, he thinks the sick person may recover, heorders an offering of a certain number of rams with black heads,to be prepared by so many magicians and their wives, and offeredup to appease the idol. On this the kinsmen of the sick personimmediately execute the orders of the devil. The rams are killed,and their blood sprinkled in the air. The assembled magicianslight up great candles, and perfume the whole house with thesmoke of incense and aloes wood, and sprinkle some of the brothmade from the flesh, mixed with spices, into the air, as theportion of the idols. When these things are performed, they againskip and dance in honour of the idol, singing and making ahorrible noise; and then ask the possessed priest whether theidol is now satisfied. If he answer in the negative, they prepareto obey any farther commands; but if he answer that the idol issatisfied, they sit down to table, and eat the flesh which wasoffered to the idol and drink the liquors; after which, themagicians being paid for their trouble, every one departs to hisown home. If the sick person recover through the providence ofGod, he attributes the restoration of his health to the idol; butif he die, it is then supposed that the idol had been defrauded,by some of the assistants having eaten of the sacrifices beforeall the rites were duly performed. This ceremony is onlypractised for rich patients, on whom the devil, or the priests inhis name, impose their blind belief.

In 1272, the great khan sent an army of 12,000 veteran troops,under the command of aft experienced officer, named Nestardin, toreduce the kingdom of Vociam and Guarazan[8]. As soon as thekings of Mien[9] and Bengala heard of this invasion, theyassembled an army of 60,000 horse and foot, besides a thousandelephants, carrying castles, in each of which there were fromtwelve to sixteen armed men. With this army, the king of Mienmarched towards the city of Vociam, where the Tartar army wasencamped. Nestardin, regardless of the great disparity ofnumbers, marched with invincible courage to fight the enemy; butwhen he drew near, he encamped under cover of a great wood,knowing that the elephants could not penetrate into the wood withthe towers on their backs. The king of Mien drew near to fightthe Tartars; but the Tartarian horses were so terrified with thesight of the elephants, who were arranged along the front of thebattle, that it was impossible to bring them up to the charge.The Tartars, therefore, were compelled to alight from theirhorses, which they fastened to the trees, and came boldlyforewards on foot against the elephants, among whom theydischarged immense quantities of arrows; so that the elephants,unable to endure the smart of their wounds, became unmanageable,and fled to the nearest wood, where they broke their castles, andoverturned the armed men, with which they were filled. On this,the Tartars remounted their horses, and made a furious attack onthe enemy. The battle continued for some time undecided, and manymen were slain on both sides. At length the army of the king ofMien was defeated and put to flight, leaving the victory to theTartars; who now hastened into the wood, and made many prisoners,by whose assistance they seized two hundred of the elephants,which were sent to the great khan. Before this time, the Tartarswere unaccustomed to the use of elephants in war; but the greatkhan has ever since had elephants in his army. After thisvictory, the great khan subjected the kingdoms of Mien andBengala to his empire.

[8] Named previously Carazam and Caraian, afterwardsCaraiam, or Carian. --E.

Departing from the province of Carian, or Caraiam, there is agreat desert which continues for two days and a half, without anyinhabitants, at the end of which desert there is a large plain,in which great multitudes meet for traffic three days in everyweek. Many people come down from the great mountains, bringinggold, which they exchange for five times its weight of silver; onwhich account, many merchants come here from foreign countrieswith silver, and carry away gold, bringing likewise largequantities of merchandize to sell to these people; for nostrangers can go into the high mountains where the people dwellwho gather gold, oh account of the intricacy and impassablenature of the roads. After passing this plain, and going to thesouth for fifteen days journey, through uninhabited and woodyplaces, in which there are innumerable multitudes of elephants,rhinoceroses[10], and other wild beasts, we come to Mien, whichborders upon India. At the end of that journey of fifteen days,we come to the great and noble city of Mien, the capital of thekingdom, which is subject to the great khan. The inhabitants areidolaters, and have a peculiar language. There was formerly aking in this city, who being on the point of death, gave ordersto erect two pyramidal monuments, or towers of marble, near hissepulchre, one at the head and the other at the foot, each ofthem ten fathoms high, and having a round ball on the top ofeach. One of these he ordered to be covered with gold, and theother with silver, a fingers breadth in thickness; and roundabout the tops of these pyramids many little bells of gold andsilver were hung, which gave a pleasing shrill sound, whenagitated by the wind. The monument or sepulchre between these waslikewise covered with plates of gold and silver. When the greatkhan undertook the conquest of this country, he sent a valiantcaptain at the head of a large army, mostly of cavalry, of whichthe Tartarian armies principally consist. After the city was won,the general would not demolish this monument without orders fromthe khan; who, on being informed that the former king had erectedit in honour of his soul, would not permit it to be injured, asthe Tartars never violate those things which belong to the dead.In the country of Mien there are many elephants and wild oxen,large stags and deer, and various other kinds of wild beasts ingreat abundance.

[9] In some modern maps, Mien is introduced as alarge province on the river of Pegu, immediately to thesouth-west of Yunnan in China, and divided from Bengal by thewhole country of Ava. But the distribution of eastern dominionhas been always extremely fluctuating; and Mien may then haveincluded all the north of Ava.--E.

[10] In the original text this animal is called theunicorn; a word of the same import withrhinoceros.--E.

The province of Bengala borders on India towards thesouth[11], and was subdued by the great khan, while I Marco Poloresided in the eastern countries. It had its own proper king, andhas a peculiar language. The inhabitants are all idolaters, andhave schools in which the masters teach idolatries andenchantments, which are universal among all the great men of thecountry. They eat flesh, rice, and milk; and have great abundanceof cotton, by the manufacture of which a great trade is carriedon. They abound also in spike, galingal, ginger, sugar, andvarious other spices; and they make many eunuchs, whom they sellto the merchants. This province continues for thirty days journeygoing eastwards, when we come to the province of Cangigu[12].This country has its own king, who is tributary to the greatkhan. The inhabitants are idolaters, and have a peculiarlanguage. The king has about three hundred wives. The provincehas much gold and many spices, but these cannot be easilytransported, as it is far distant from the sea. It has also manyelephants and much game. The inhabitants live on flesh, rice, andmilk, having no wine, but they make an excellent drink of riceand spices. Both men and women ornament their faces, necks,hands, bellies, and legs, with the figures of lions, dragons, andbirds, and these are so firmly imprinted, as to be almostindelible. There are in this country professors of this foolishart of skin embroidery, who follow no other trade but this needlework, and dying of fools skins; and the person who has thegreatest number and variety of these images, is considered thefinest and most gallantly ornamented.

[11] This either implies that Bengal on the bordersof India is to the south of Thibet; or south is here anerror for east, Bengal being the eastern frontier provinceof India proper.--E.

[12] The difficulty, or rather impossibility oftracing the steps of Marco Polo, may proceed from various causes.The provinces or kingdoms, mostly named from their chief cities,have suffered infinite changes from perpetual revolutions. Thenames he gives, besides being corrupted in the varioustranscriptions and editions, he probably set down orally, asgiven to him in the Tartar or Mogul dialect, very different fromthose which have been adopted into modern geography from varioussources. Many of these places may have been destroyed, and newnames imposed. Upon the whole, his present course appears to havebeen from Bengal eastwards, through the provinces of the fartherIndia, to Mangi or southern China; and Cangigu may possibly beChittigong. Yet Cangigu is said in the text to be an inlandcountry. --E.

Amu or Aniu, twenty-five days journey to the east of theprovince of Cangigu, is subject to the great khan, and itsinhabitants are idolaters who have a peculiar language. Thiscountry abounds in provisions, and has great quantities of cattleand many horses; and these last being excellent, are carried bythe merchants for sale into India. The country is full ofexcellent pastures, and therefore abounds in buffalos and oxen.Both men and women wear bracelets of gold and silver of greatvalue on their legs and arms, but those of the women are the mostvaluable.

The province of Tholoman, which is likewise subject to thegreat khan, is at the distance of eight days journey east fromAmu; the inhabitants are idolaters, and use a peculiar language;both men and women are tall, well shaped, and of a browncomplexion. This country is well inhabited, having many strongtowns and castles, and the men are practised in arms, andaccustomed to war. They burn their dead, after which they inclosethe bones and ashes in chests, which they hide in holes of themountains. Gold is found in great plenty, yet both here and inCangigu and Amu, they use the cowrie shells which are broughtfrom India.

From this province of Tholoman, the high road leads eastwardsby a river, on the banks of which there are many towns andcastles, and at the end of twelve days journey, we come to thegreat city of Cintigui, the province of the same name beingsubject to the great khan, and the inhabitants are idolaters.They manufacture excellent cloths from the bark of trees, ofwhich their summer clothing is made. There are many lions in thiscountry, so that no person dare sleep out of doors in the night,and the vessels which frequent the river, dare not be made fastto the banks at night from dread of the lions. The inhabitantshave large dogs, so brave and strong, that they are not afraideven to attack the lion, and it often happens that one man armedwith a bow and arrows, and assisted by two of these dogs, willkill a lion. The dogs, urged on by the man, give the onset, andthe lion endeavours to take shelter beside a tree, that the dogsmay not be able to get behind him, yet he scorns to run away, andholds on his stately slow space, the dogs always fastening on hishinder parts; but so cautiously and nimbly do they manage theirassaults, that whenever the lion turns upon them, they are beyondhis reach. Then the magnanimous beast holds on his way towards atree, the man all the while plying him with arrows, at everyopportunity, and the dogs constantly tearing him from behind,till at length, with loss of blood, he falls down and dies. Thiscountry abounds in silk, which is carried by the merchants tovarious provinces, by means of the river. Their money is paper,and the inhabitants are valiant in arms.

At the end of ten days journey from Cintigui, we come to thecity of Sindinfu; twenty days from thence is Gingui, and fourdays from thence, towards the south, is Palan-fu in Kathay,returning by the other side of the province. The people areidolaters and burn their dead, but there are also some Christianswho have a church. The people use paper money, and are all underthe dominion of the great khan. They make cloths of gold andsilk, and very fine lawns. Past this city of Palan-fu, which hasmany cities under its jurisdiction, there runs a fine river,which carries great store of merchandize to Cambalu, by means ofmany canals made on purpose. Leaving this place, and travellingthree days journey towards the south of the province of Kathay,subject to the great khan, is the great city of Ciangu. They areidolaters, who burn their dead, and their money is the mulberrypaper coin of the khan. The earth, in the territories of thiscity, abounds in salt, which is extracted in the followingmanner: The earth is heaped up like a hill, and large quantitiesof water are poured on, which extracts the salt, and runs bycertain conduits into cauldrons, in which it is boiled up intofine white salt; and this manufacture produces great profit tothe people and the great khan, as large quantities are exportedfor sale to other countries. In this neighbourhood there arelarge and fine flavoured peaches, one of which weighs twopounds.

Five days journey farther south from Ciangu is the city ofCiangli, likewise in Kathay, between which we pass many citiesand castles, all subject to the great khan; and through themiddle of this last city of Ciangli, there runs a large river,which is very convenient for the transport of merchandize. Sixdays journey from thence to the south is the noble kingdom andgreat city of Tudinfu, which was formerly subject to its ownking, but was subdued by the arms of the great khan in 1272.Under its jurisdiction there are twelve famous trading cities. Itis most pleasantly situated among gardens and orchards, and isrich in silks. A baron, named Lucanser, who was sent to governthis acquisition by the khan, with an army of 8000 horse, choseto rebel; but was defeated and slain by an army of 100,000 horsesent against him by the khan under two other barons, and thecountry again reduced to obedience. Seven days journey farthersouth is the famous city of Singuimatu, to which, on the south, agreat river runs, which is divided by the inhabitants into tworivers, one branch of which flows by the east towards Kathay, andthe other by the west towards Mangi[13]. By these rivers orcanals innumerable vessels, incredible for their size and wealth,carry vast quantities of merchandize through both of theseprovinces; and for sixteen days journey to the south fromSinguimatu, we meet with many cities and towns, which carry onimmense trade. The inhabitants of all these countries areidolaters, and subject to the great khan. You then come to agreat river called Caramoran[14], which is said to take its risein the dominions formerly belonging to Umcan, or Prester John, inthe north. It is very deep, and carries ships of great burden,and is well stocked with fish. Within one days journey of the seaare the two cities of Coigan-zu and Quan-zu, on opposite sides ofthe river, the one a great city and the other a small one, wherea fleet of 15,000 vessels is kept by the great khan, each fittedfor carrying fifteen horses and twenty men. These are always inreadiness to carry an army to any of the islands, or to anyremote region in case of rebellion[15]. On passing the greatriver Caramoran, or Hoang-ho, we enter into the noble kingdom ofMangi: But it must not be supposed that I have described thewhole province of Kathay, as I have not spoken of the twentiethpart of it; for in passing through this province, I have onlymentioned the principal cities on my way, leaving those on bothsides, and many intermediate ones to avoid prolixity, and not toset down in writing what I only learned from hearsay.

[13] Kathay and Mangi, as formerly mentioned, areNorthern and Southern China, so that the direction of theserivers ought perhaps to have been described as north and south,instead of east and west. About seventy miles from the mouth ofthe Yellow river, or Hoang-ho, there is a town called Tsingo,near which a canal runs to the north, communicating with theriver on which Pekin is situated, and another canal, running farsouth into Mangi or Southern China. Tsingo, though now aninferior town, may have been formerly Singui-matu, and a place ofgreat importance.--E.

[14] Caramoran or Hora-moran, is the Hoang-ho, orYellow river; and it must be allowed, that the distance which isplaced in the text, between Singui-matu and this river, is quitehostile to the idea mentioned in the preceding note, of Tsingoand Singui-matu being the same place. The only other situation inall China which accords with the two canals, or rivers,communicating both with Kathay and Mangi, is Yotcheou on theTong-ting-hou lake, which is on the Kian-ku river, and at asufficient distance from the Hoang-ho to agree with the text. Inthe absence of all tolerable certainty, conjecture seemsallowable. --E.

[15] There are no Chinese cities, in our maps, that,in the least appearance of sound, correspond with the names ofthese towns or cities near the mouth of the Hoang-ho. Hoain-ginis the only large city near its mouth, and that is not on itsbanks. All therefore that can be said, is, that the two cities inthe text must have stood on opposite sides of the Hoang-ho in thedays of Marco Polo.--E.

SECTION XV.

An account of the Kingdom of Mangi, and the manner of itsReduction under the dominion of the Great Khan; together withsome Notices of its various Provinces and Cities.

The kingdom of Mangi is the richest and most famous of allthat are to be found in the east. In the year 1269, this kingdomwas governed by a king named Fanfur[1], who was richer and morepowerful than any who had reigned there for an hundred years.Fanfur maintained justice and internal peace in his dominions, sothat no one dared to offend his neighbour, or to disturb thepeace, from dread of prompt, severe, and impartial justice;insomuch, that the artificers would often leave their shops,filled with valuable commodities, open in the night, yet no onewould presume to enter them. Travellers and strangers travelledin safety through his whole dominions by day or night. He wasmerciful to the poor, and carefully provided for such as wereoppressed by poverty or sickness, and every year took charge of20,000 infants who were deserted by their mothers from poverty,all of whom he bred up till they were able to work at some trade.But in process of time, betaking himself more to pleasures thanwas fit, he employed his whole time in delights, in the midst of1000 concubines. His capital was encompassed with ditches full ofwater; but Fanfur was entirely addicted to the arts of peace, andso beloved of his subjects for his justice and charity, that,trusting to their numbers and attachment, and to the naturalstrength and resources of the country, both king and peopleneglected the use of arms, keeping no cavalry in pay, becausethey feared no one, and believed themselves invincible.

[1] Called Tou-tsong by the Chinese historians, thefifteenth emperor of the nineteenth dynasty, who succeeded to thethrone in the year 1264.--Harris.

Cublai-khan was of a different disposition from Fanfur, anddelighted in war and conquest; and having resolved upon making aconquest of the kingdom of Mangi, he levied a great army of horseand foot for that purpose, over which he placed a general namedChinsan-Baian[2]. He accordingly marched with his army,accompanied by a fleet, into the province of Mangi, and summonedthe city of Coiganzu[3] to surrender to the authority of thegreat khan. On this being refused, he departed without making anyassault, to the second, the third, and the fourth city, all ofwhich he summoned, and on their refusal, marched on without siegeor assault. But receiving the same answer from the fifth, heassaulted it with great courage, and having taken it by storm, hemassacred the whole inhabitants, without sparing any of eithersex, or of any age or condition. This severe military executionso terrified the other cities, that they all immediatelysurrendered. On this successful commencement being reported tothe khan, he sent a new army to reinforce Chinsan-Baian, whosearmy was now much diminished by the garrisons he had to leave inthe conquered cities. With his army thus reinforced, Chinsanmarched against Quinsai[4] the capital city of the kingdom ofMangi, in which Fanfur resided. He was much terrified at thisformidable invasion, and having never seen any war, he fled withall his wealth on board a great fleet which he had prepared,retiring to certain impregnable islands in the ocean[5],committing the custody of his capital to his wife, whom hedesired to defend it as well as she could, as being a woman, sheneed not fear being put to death if she were made prisoner. Itmay be observed, that Fanfur had been told by his diviners, thathis kingdom would never be taken from him except by one who hadan hundred eyes; and this being known to the queen, she was inhopes or preserving the city in all extremities, thinking itimpossible for any one man to have an hundred eyes. But learningthat the name of the commander of the Tartars had thatsignification, she sent for him and delivered up the city,believing him to be the person indicated by the astrologers, andto whom destiny had predetermined the conquest of the city andkingdom.[6] She was sent to the court of the great khan, whereshe was most honourably received, and entertained as became herformer dignity. After the surrender of the capital, the citizensand inhabitants of the whole province yielded to the obedience ofthe great khan[7].

[2] The name of this general is said to havesignified an hundred eyes; doubtless a Tartar title,denoting his vigilance and foresight. By the Chinese historians,this general is named Pe-yen; which may have the samesignification. These historians attribute the conquest of Mangi,or Southern China, to the indolence, debauchery, and extreme loveof pleasure of this emperor, whom they nameTou-Tsong.--Harris.

[3] The names of all places and provinces in thetravels of Marco Polo, are either so disguised by Tartarappellations, or so corrupted, that they cannot be referred withany certainty to the Chinese names upon our maps. Coiganzu,described afterwards as the first city in the south-east of Mangiin going from Kathay, may possibly be Hoingan-fou, which answersto that situation. The termination fou is merelycity; and other terminations are used by the Chinese, astcheou and others, to denote the rank or class in whichthey are placed, in regard to the subordination of theirgovernors and tribunals, which will be explained in that part ofour work which is appropriated to the empire ofChina.--E.

[4] Or Guinsai, to be afterwardsdescribed.--E.

[5] It does not appear where these islands were,situated; whether Hainan or Formosa, properly Tai-ouan, orTai-wan, or the islands in the bay of Canton.--E.

[6] These sagacious diviners must have been wellacquainted with the military energy of the Tartar government, andthe abject weakness of their own; and certainly knew, from theirbrethren in Kathay, the significant name of the Tartar general;on which foundation, they constructed the enigma of theirprophecy, which, like many others, contributed towards its ownaccomplishment.--E.

[7] About a year after the surrender of his capital,Tou-Tsong died, leaving three sons, who all perished in a fewyears afterwards. The eldest was made prisoner, and died incaptivity in Tartary. The second died of a consumption at Canton,where he had taken refuge at eleven years of age. The third,named Ti-Ping, after all the country was seized by the Tartars,was carried on board the Chinese fleet, which was pursued andbrought to action by a fleet which the Tartars had fitted out forthe purpose. When the Chinese lord, who had the charge of theinfant emperor, saw the vessel in which he was embarkedsurrounded by the Tartars, he took the young prince in his armsand jumped with him into the sea. One considerable squadron ofthe Chinese fleet forced a passage through that of the Tartars,but was afterwards entirely destroyed in atempest.--Harris.

I shall now speak of the cities in the kingdom of Mangi.Coiganzu is a very fair and rich city, situate towards thesouth-east and east, in the very entrance of the province ofMangi[8]. In this city, which is situated on the river Carama[9],there are vast numbers of ships employed in trade, and greatquantities of salt are made in that neighbourhood. Proceedingfrom Coigan-zu, we ride one days journey to the south-east, on astone causeway, on both sides of which are great fences with deepwaters, through which people may pass with proper vessels[10],and there is no entrance into Mangi but by this causeway exceptby shipping. At the end of this days journey is a large and faircity called Paughin, of which the inhabitants are idolaters, andmanufacturers of stuffs of silk and gold, in which they drive aconsiderable trade. It is plentifully supplied with all thenecessaries of life, and the paper money of the khan is currentin the whole province. One days journey farther south-east, isthe large and famous city of Caim. The neighbouring countryabounds in fish, beasts, and fowl of all kinds, especially withpheasants as large as peaco*cks, which are so plentiful, thatthree may be bought for a Venetian groat. Proceeding another daysjourney through a well cultivated, fertile, and well peopledcountry, we come to a moderate sized city called Tingui, which ismuch resorted to by ships and merchants, and abounds in all thenecessaries of life. This place is in the south-east, on the lefthand, three days journey from the ocean, and in the country,between it and the sea, there are many salt pits, in which greatquantities of salt are made. After this is Cingui[11], a greatcity, whence the whole country is furnished with salt, of whichthe khan makes immense profit, almost beyond belief. Theinhabitants are idolaters, and use paper money. Riding farther tothe south-east is the noble city of Jangui[12], which hastwenty-seven other cities dependent on its government. In thiscity, one of the twelve barons, who are governors of provinces,usually resides; but I, Marco, had the sole government of thisplace for three years, instead of one of these barons, by aspecial commission from the great khan. The inhabitants areidolaters, living chiefly by merchandize, and they manufacturearms and harness for war. Naughin[l3] is a province to thewest[14] of Tangui, one of the greatest and noblest in all Mangi,and a place of vast trade, having abundance of beasts and fowls,wild and tame, and plenty of corn. The inhabitants are idolaters,and manufacture, stuffs of silk and gold, using only paper money.This country produces large revenues to the khan, especially inthe customs which he receives from trade.

[8] This direction must be understood in reference toKathay; as it is perfectly obvious, that the entrance here spokenof must be in the north-east of Mangi. Supposing the C aspirated,Coigan-zu and Hoaingan-fu, both certainly arbitrarilyorthographized from the Chinese pronunciation, are not verydissimilar.--E.

[9] Perhaps an error in transcription for Hara-moran,or Kara-moran, the Mongul or Tartar name of the Hoang-ho, orWhang river, near, and communicating with which, Hoaingan, orWhan-gan-fou is situated.--E.

[10] This is an obscure indication of navigablecanals on each side of the paved road of communication to thesouth.--E.

[11] Cin-gui, or in the Italian pronunciation, Chin,or Tsin-gui, may possibly be Yen-tching. Tin-gui may be Sin-Yang,or Tsin-yang, to the north-east of Yen-tching.--E.

[12] Obviously Yang-tcheou, the latter syllable beingits title or designation of rank and precedency. Marco certainlymistakes, from distant recollection, the direction of histravels, which are very nearly south, with a very slightdeviation towards the east. South-east would by this time haveled him into the sea.--E.

[13] Though called a province, this obviously refersto the city of Nankin; the Nau-ghin of the text being probably acorruption for Nan-ghin.--E.

[14] For west, we ought certainly here to readsouth-west.--E.

Sian-Fu is a large and noble city in the province of Mangi,having twelve great and rich cities under its jurisdiction. Thiscity is so strong that it was three years besieged by the army ofthe Tartars, and could not be vanquished at the time when therest of the kingdom of Mangi was subdued. It was so environedwith lakes and rivers, that ships came continually with plenty ofprovisions and it was only accessible from the north. The longresistance of this city gave much dissatisfaction to the khan;which coming to the knowledge of Nicolo and Maffei Polo, then athis court, they offered their services to construct certainengines, after the manner of those used in Europe, capable ofthrowing stones of three hundred weight, to kill the men, andruin the houses in the besieged city. The khan assigned themcarpenters, who were Nestorian Christians, to work under theirdirection, and they made three of these engines, which were triedbefore the khan and approved of. These were accordingly sent byshipping to the army before Sian-fu, and being planted againstthe city, cast great stones into it, by which some of the houseswere beaten down and destroyed. The inhabitants were very muchastonished and terrified by the effect of these machines, andsurrendered themselves to the authority and dominion of the khan,on the same conditions with the rest of Mangi; and by thisservice, the Venetian brethren acquired great reputation andfavour.

From this city of Sian-fu, to another called Sin-gui, it isaccounted fifteen miles to the south-east. This city, though notvery large, has a prodigious number of ships, as it is situate onthe greatest river in the world, called Quiam [l5], being in someplaces ten, in others eight, and in others six miles broad. Butit* length extends to a distance of above an hundred days journeyfrom its source to the sea, receiving numberless navigable riversin its course, from various and distant regions, by which meansincredible quantities of merchandize are transported upon thisriver. There are about two hundred cities which participate inthe advantages of this river, which runs through, or past, theboundaries of sixteen provinces. The greatest commodity on thisriver is salt, with which all the provinces and cities which havecommunication with its water are supplied. I, Marco, once saw atSingui five thousand vessels, yet some other cities on the riverhave a greater number. All these ships are covered, having butone mast and one sail, and usually carry 4000 Venetian Canthariand upwards, some as far as 12,000. In these vessels they use nocordage of hemp; even their hawsers or towing ropes being made ofcanes, about fifteen paces long, which they split into thinpieces from end to end, and bind or wreath together into ropes,some of which are three hundred fathoms long, and serve fordragging their vessels up or down the river; each vessel havingten or twelve horses for that purpose. On that river there arerocky hillocks in many places, on which idol temples, withmonasteries for the priests are built, and in all the course ofthe river we find cultivated vallies and habitationsinnumerable.

[15] Quiam, Kiang, Kian-ku, Kin-tchin-kian, orYang-tsi-kiang. In modern maps, there is a town on the northernshore of this river, named Tsing-Kiang, which may possibly be theSingui of Marco, and we may perhaps look for the Sian-fu of thePolos at Yang-tcheou, at the southern extremity of a chain oflakes immediately to the north of the river Kian-ku. The subjectis however full of perplexity, difficulty, and extremeuncertainty.--E.

Cayn-gui is a small city on the same river to the south,eastwards of Sin-gui, where every year great quantities of cornand rice are brought, which is carried for the most part toCambalu. For from the Quiam or Kian-ku river, they pass to thatcity by means of lakes and rivers, and by one large canal, whichthe great khan caused to be made for a passage from one river toanother; so that vessels go all the way from Mangi or SouthernChina to Cambalu, without ever being obliged to put to sea. Thisgreat work is beautiful and wonderful for its size and vastextent, and is of infinite profit to the cities and provinces ofthe empire. The khan likewise caused great causeways to beconstructed along the banks of this prodigious canal, for theconveniency of travelling by land, and for towing the vessels. Inthe middle of the great river there is a rocky island, with agreat temple and monastery for the idolatrous priests.

Cin-ghian-fu [16] is a city of the province of Mangi, which isrich in merchandize, and plentiful in game and provisions of allkinds. In 1274, the great khan sent Marsachis, a NestorianChristian to govern this city, who built here two Christianchurches. From the city of Cin-ghian-fu, in a journey of threedays journey to the south-eastwards, we find many cities andcastles, all inhabited by idolaters, and at length come to thegreat and handsome city of Tin-gui-gui, which abounds in allkinds of provisions. When Chinsan Baian conquered the kingdom ofMangi, he sent a large body of Christian Alani[17] against thiscity, which had a double inclosure of walls. The inhabitantsretired from the outer town, within the inner wall, and theAlanians finding great store of wine, indulged themselves toofreely after a severe march. In the night time, the citizenssallied out upon them, while all were drunk and asleep, and putevery man of them to the sword. But Baian sent afterwards a fresharmy against them, which soon mastered the city, and in severerevenge massacred the whole inhabitants. The great and excellentcity of Sin-gui[18] is twenty miles in circumference, andcontains a vast population, among whom are great numbers ofphysicians and magicians, and wise men or philosophers. It hassixteen other cities under its jurisdiction, in each of whichthere is much trade and many curious arts, and many sorts of silkare made in its territories. The neighbouring mountains producerhubarb and ginger in great plenty. The name Sin-gui signifiesthe City of the Earth, and there is another city in the kingdomof Mangi called Quin-sai, which signifies the City of Heaven.From Singui it is one days journey to Vagiu, where also isabundance of silk, and able artisans, and many merchants, as isuniversally the case in all the cities of this kingdom.

[16] This must be Tchin-kian-fou; the three separatesyllables in both of these oral orthographies having almostprecisely similar sounds; always remembering that the softItalian c has the power of tsh, or our hardch as in the English word chin, and the Italiangh the sound of the hard Englishg.--E.

[17] This evinces the great policy of the militarygovernment of the Tartars, in employing the subjugated nations inone corner of their empire to make conquests at such enormousdistances from their native countries. The Alanians came from thecountry between the Euxine and Caspian, in Long. 60° E. andwere here fighting Long. 135° E.; above 4000 miles fromhome.--E.

[18] By the language in this place, either Sin-guiand Tin-gui-gui are the same place, or the transition is morethan ordinarily abrupt; if the same, the situation of Sin-gui hasbeen attempted to be explained in a former note. If different,Tin-gui-gui was probably obliterated on this occasion, as no namein the least similar appears in the map ofChina.--E.

SECTION XVI.

Of the noble City of Quinsai, and of the vast Revenuesdrawn from thence by the Great Khan.

In a journey of three days from Vagiu, we find numbers ofcities, castles, and villages, all well peopled and rich, theinhabitants being all idolaters and subject to the great khan. Atthe end of these three days journey, we come to Quinsay, orGuinsai, its name signifying the City of Heaven, to denote itsexcellence above all the other cities of the world, in whichthere are so much riches, and so many pleasures and enjoyments,that a person might conceive himself in paradise. In this greatcity, I, Marco, have often been, and have considered it withdiligent attention, observing its whole state and circ*mstances,and setting down the same in my memorials, of which I shall heregive a brief abstract. By common report, this city is an hundredmiles in circuit[1]. The streets and lanes are very long andwide, and it has many large market places. On one side of thecity there is a clear lake of fresh water, and on the other thereis a great river, which enters into the city in many places, andcarries away all the filth into the lake, whence it continues itscourse into the ocean. This abundant course of running watercauses a healthful circulation of pure air, and gives commodiouspassage in many directions both by land and water, through thosenumerous canals, as by means of these and the causeways, by whichthey are bordered, carts and barks have free intercourse for thecarriage of merchandize and provisions. It is said that there aretwelve thousand bridges, great and small, in this city, and thoseover the principal canals are so high, that a vessel without hermasts may go through underneath, while chariots and horses passabove. On the other side of the city, there is a large canalforty miles[2] long, which incloses it on that side, being deepand full of water, made by the ancient kings, both to receive theoverflowings of the river, and to fortify the city, and the earthwhich was dug out from this canal, is laid on the inside as arampart of defence. There are ten great market places which aresquare, half a mile in each side[3]. The principal street isforty paces broad, having a canal in the middle with manybridges, and every four miles [Li] there is a marketplace, two miles [Li] in circuit. There is also one largecanal behind the great street and the market places, on theopposite bank of which there are many storehouses of stone, wherethe merchants from India and other places lay up theircommodities, being at hand and commodious for the markets. Ineach of these markets, the people from the country, to the numberof forty or fifty thousand, meet three days in every week,bringing beasts, game, fowls, and in short every thing that canbe desired for subsistence in profusion; and so cheap, that twogeese, or four ducks, may be bought for a Venetian groat. Thenfollow the butcher markets, in which beef, mutton, veal, kid, andlamb, are sold to the great and rich, as the poor eat of alloffal and unclean beasts without scruple. All sorts of herbs andfruits are to be had continually, among which are huge pears,weighing ten pounds each, white within, and very fragrant[4],with yellow and white peaches of very delicate flavour. Grapes donot grow in this country, but raisins are brought from otherplaces. They likewise import very good wine; but that is not inso much esteem as with us, the people being contented with theirown beverage, prepared from rice and spices. Every day there arebrought up from the ocean, which is at the distance oftwenty-five miles, such vast quantities of fish, besides thosewhich are caught in the lake, that one would conceive they couldnever be consumed, yet, in a few hours all is gone. All thesemarket places are encompassed with high houses, underneath whichare shops for all kinds of artificers, and all kinds ofmerchandize, as spices, pearls, and jewels, and so forth, and insome the rice wine is sold. Many streets cross each other,leading into these markets; in some of which there are many coldbaths, accommodated with attendants of both sexes, who are usedto this employment from their infancy. In the same bagnios, thereare chambers for hot baths, for such strangers as are notaccustomed to bathe in cold water. The inhabitants bathe everyday, and always wash before eating.

[1] There are two Chinese measures called Li; of thegreater there are 200 to a degree of latitude, and of the smaller250. It is possible that Marco may have mistaken one or other ofthese measures for miles; either of which suppositions wouldreduce the bounds of Quinsai to some decent moderation, beingthirty-four miles for the greater, and twenty-seven miles for thesmaller li, yet a large city on even the latter substitution.Koan-sing, which may likewise be written Quan- sing, all Chinesenames in alphabetical characters, being quite of arbitraryorthography, is the only place which can be supposed the samewith Quinsai. But similarity of sounds is a very uncertain guide.From other circ*mstances in the text, the modern Kua-hing mayhave once been Quinsay.--E.

[2] Calculating by Li, this extent will be reduced toeleven or thirteen miles.--E.

In other streets, there are such numbers of mercenaryprostitutes, that I dare not pretend to say how many. These arefound near the market places, and in all quarters of the city, inplaces appointed for their residence, where they shew themselves,pompously adorned and perfumed, attended by many servants, andhaving their houses richly furnished. They are very skilful insports and dalliances, and in contriving pleasures to rob men oftheir senses. In other streets there are physicians andastrologers, and persons who teach to read and write, and aninfinity of other trades. At each end of every market place,there is a palace or tribunal where judges, appointed by thekhan, are stationed for determining any disputes which may happenbetween merchants and others; also, to superintend the guardsupon the bridges, and other matters of police, punishing all whoare negligent or disorderly. Along both sides of the principalstreet, there are great palaces with gardens; and between thesethe houses of artificers; and such multitudes are perpetuallygoing to and fro in all the streets, that one would wonder how sovast a population could be provided in food. I was informed by anofficer of the customs, that it appeared, by a very accuratecomputation, the daily expenditure of pepper in Quinsai, wasforty-three soma, each soma being 223 pounds[5]. From thissome idea may be formed of the immense quantities of victuals,flesh, wine, and spices, which are expended in that place. Thereare twelve principal companies or corporations, each of which hasa thousand shops; and in each shop or factory, there are ten,fifteen, or twenty men at work, and in some forty under onemaster[6].

[3] By the same reduction, these squares will bereduced to half a quarter of a mile in thesides.--E.

[4] Probably a mistaken translation or transcriptionfor melons, pumpkins, or gourds.--E.

[5] This amounts to more than one sixth of an ouncedaily for a population of a million, including infants. A thingutterly incredible, and which must arise from some corruption ofthe text. It exceeds 9000 tons yearly. Perhaps, instead ofpepper the original had salt.--E.

[6] This alone would give a working populationexceeding a million, including the women, children, and aged,belonging to these. But populous as the country certainly is, theChinese, in all ages, from Polo down to Staunton, have imposedthose ridiculously exaggerated accounts upon all inquisitivetravellers. This subject will be discussed in that division ofthis work, which particularly relates to China.--E.

The rich tradesmen do not work themselves, although theancient laws ordained that the sons of all should follow thetrades of their fathers, but the rich are permitted not to workwith their own hands, but to keep shops and factories,superintending the labour of others in their particular trades.These rich people, and especially their wives, stand in theirshops, well dressed, or rather sumptuously arrayed in rich silks,and adorned with valuable jewels. Their houses are well built,and richly furnished, and adorned with pictures and otherornaments of immense price; and they exercise their trades withgreat integrity. The whole inhabitants are idolaters, of a veryfair complexion, and mostly dressed in silken garments, as silkis produced in great abundance in their neighbourhood, or broughtfrom other places. They dwell together in great amity, insomuch,that the inhabitants of a street seem only to compose one family,and are particularly circ*mspect in their behaviour to females,as it would be reputed exceedingly disgraceful to use anyindecorous language to a married woman. The natives are of a mostpeaceable disposition, and no way addicted to strife orquarrelling, and altogether unused to arms, which they do noteven keep in their houses. They are extremely hospitable toforeign merchants, whom they entertain kindly in their houses,giving them the best advice in regard to the conduct of theiraffairs: But they are by no means fond of the soldiers and guardsof the great khan, as by their means they have been deprived oftheir natural kings and rulers. About the lake there are manyfair buildings and palaces of the principal men, and numerousidol temples, with monasteries of idolatrous priests. There aretwo islands in the lake, on each of which is a palace, containingan incredible number of rooms, to which they resort on occasionof marriages and other festivals. In these palaces, abundance ofplate, linens, and all other things necessary for such purposes,are kept up at the common expence, and sometimes 100 separatecompanies are accommodated at one time in the several apartments.In the lake also there are vast numbers of pleasure boats andbarges, adorned with fair seats and tables under cover, beingflat on the tops, where men stand to push the boats along withpoles, as the lake is very shallow. These are all painted within,and have windows to open or shut at pleasure. Nothing in theworld can be more pleasant or delightful than this lake, from itsimmense variety of rich objects on all sides; particularly thecity ornamented with so many temples, monasteries, palaces,gardens, trees, barges, and innumerable people taking theirrecreations; for they ordinarily work only a part of each day,spending the remainder in parties of pleasure with their friends,or with women, either on the lake, or in driving through the cityin chariots. All the streets are paved with stone, as are all thehighways in the kingdom of Mangi, only a space on one side beingleft unpaved for the use of the foot posts. The principal streetof Quinsai has a pavement of ten paces broad on each side, themiddle being laid with gravel, and having channels in every placefor conveying water, it is kept always perfectly clean. In thisstreet there are innumerable long close chariots, each of whichis accommodated with seats and silk cushions for six persons, whodivert themselves by driving about the streets, or go to thepublic gardens, where they pass their time in fine walks, shadybowers, and the like, and return at night in the same chariots tothe city[7].

[7] The contrast between the cleanness and splendourof Quinsay and the gloomy dirt of European cities in thethirteenth century is very striking. China then enjoyed hackneycoaches, tea gardens, and hilarity; while the delights ofEuropean capitals were processions of monks among perpetualdunghills in narrow crooked lanes.--E.

When a child is born, the father notes down the exact point oftime, and with this memorandum goes immediately to someastrologer, of whom there are many in every market place, toconsult the destiny in regard to his future fortunes; and theyuse the same forms before celebrating their marriages, toascertain the lucky times. When a person of note dies, thekindred clothe themselves in canvas or sackcloth, and accompanythe body to the funeral, both men and women, people beingemployed to play on musical instruments, and singing all the wayprayers to their idols; and being come to the place, they castinto the fire in which the body is burnt, many pieces of cottonpaper, on which figures of slaves, horses, camels, stuffs of silkand gold, money, and all other things are painted, which, by thismeans, they believe the dead person will really possess in thenext world; and they make a grand concert of music, under theidea of the joy with which the soul of their departed friend willbe received by their idols in the other life which he is now tobegin. As their timber houses are very liable to accidents byfire, there are stone towers in every street, to which they carrytheir goods for security on such occasions. On most of thebridges there are guard-houses, in which soldiers continuallvwatch, five in each by day, and five by night, in case of anyalarm or disturbance. In every guard-house there hangs a greatbason[8], on which the warders strike the successive hours,beginning one at sunrise, and beginning a new series at sunset.These guards patrole during the night, and if they see any lightor fire in a house after the appointed time, or meet any personin the streets after legal hours, they cause them to answerbefore the judges or magistrates of the district. When a firehappens, the guards collect from their different stations toassist in quenching it, and to carry away the goods to the stonetowers, or into the islands in the lake; for during the nightnone of the citizens are permitted to go out, except such as arein danger from fires.

[8] Probably meaning a gong.--E.

The khan keeps always a large body of his best and mostfaithful soldiers for the security of the city, which is thelargest and richest in the whole earth; and besides the smallguard-houses on the bridges already mentioned, there are largerlodges built of wood all over the city, for the accommodation ofparties of guards to preserve peace and order. On the reductionof Mangi to obedience, the khan divided it into nine greatprovinces, placing a viceroy in each, to administer thegovernment, and to dispense justice. Every year each of theseviceroys gives an account to the tribunals of the khan atCambalu, of the revenues, and all other matters connected withhis government; and every third year, the viceroy, and all theother officers are changed. The viceroy, who resides in Quinsai,commands over 140 other cities, all large, rich, and populous;nor is the extent of this government to be wondered at, as thereare in Mangi 12,000 cities, all inhabited by rich and industriouspeople, in every one of which the khan maintains a garrisonproportional to its greatness and importance, in some 1000 men,and even up to 10 or 20,000 men[9]. These are not all Tartars,for the Tartar soldiers are cavalry only, and are kept in placeswhere there is conveniency for exercising their horses. The greatmajority of the troops in Mangi are Kathayans, and the garrisonsin Kathay are composed of people from Mangi. Every third year,such a number of men fit to carry arms as are wanted, areselected for filling up the garrisons, and are sent to serve inplaces, at least twenty days journey from their homes; and, afterserving four or five years, they are permitted to go home, andare replaced by fresh recruits. Most part of the revenues of thekhan are expended in this way, and on the other necessaryexpences of government; and by this distribution of so powerful amilitary force, an army can be suddenly called together in theevent of any town rebelling. In the city of Quinsai there is aconstant garrison of 30,000 soldiers, and the smallest city inall Mangi contains at least 1000 regular troops. If any person isnot able to work, he is carried to some hospital, of which thereare many in Quinsai, founded by the ancient kings, and endowedwith large revenues: But when they are well again, they mustreturn to their labour.

[9] There must be some corruption in the text here;for even Chinese exaggeration could hardly venture upon thiscomputation, which would extend the garrisons in Mangi alone tomany millions.--E.

I come next to speak of the palace of the late king Fanfur.His predecessors caused a large park to be inclosed with highwalls, ten miles in circuit[10], and divided within into threeparts. That in the middle was entered by a gate leading to arange of large galleries or halls, whose roofs were sustained bypillars finely wrought and painted, and richly adorned with goldand azure. The smallest of these galleries was that nearest thegate of entrance, and they gradually became larger and fairer insuccession, the most sumptuous being at the farthest end. Thewalls of all these apartments were elegantly painted with theportraits and histories of the former kings. Every year, oncertain holidays dedicated to the idols, Fanfur used to hold opencourt, on which occasion he feasted his chief lords, theprincipal merchants, and rich artificers of Quinsai, 10,000 at atime in these halls, the feasts continuing for ten or twelvesuccessive days, with incredible magnificence, every guest usinghis utmost endeavours to appear in the most pompous dresses. Onone side of this magnificent range of galleries, there was a walldividing it from a great cloistered court, having a terrace allround, set with pillars, communicating with which were thechambers of the king and queen, all curiously wrought, carved,gilded, and painted with the utmost splendour and magnificence.From this cloister, a covered gallery, six paces wide, extended agreat length all the way to the lake; and on each side of thisgallery there were ten courts, answering to each other likecloisters, each having fifty chambers with their gardens, and inthese there were 1000 concubines for the kings service. Sometimeswith the queen, and sometimes with these concubines, the kingused to go in his barge for recreation on the lake, or to visitthe idol temples. The rest of the great inclosure was dividedinto graves, lakes, and gardens, in which all sorts of beasts ofchase were kept, as stags, roebucks, hares, conies, and others,and there the king used to divert himself with his damsels, inchariots, or on horseback, no man being allowed to enter there.In this place the ladies hunted with dogs, and when wearied withsport they retired into the groves, and throwing off theirgarments, came forth naked, and fell to swimming in the lakes inthe kings presence. Sometimes he banqueted in these groves, beingserved by his damsels. All of these particulars I learnt from anold rich merchant of Quinsai, who had been familiar with kingFanfur, and knew all the incidents of his life and reign, and hadseen the palace in its most flourishing state; and he carried meto see it. The viceroy now resides there, the first describedgalleries remaining, still in their original state, but thechambers of the damsels are fallen to ruin; the walls also whichencompassed the woods and gardens, are all fallen down, thebeasts and trees are all gone, and all the other ornaments aredestroyed.

[10] If Li, from 2-1/2 to 3-1/2miles.--E.

Twenty-five miles from Quinsai we come to the ocean, betweenthe east and the north-east, near which is a city calledGampu[11], having an excellent port frequented by merchant shipsfrom the Indies. While I Marco was in Quinsai, an account wastaken for the great khan, of the revenues, and the number ofinhabitants, and I saw that there were enrolled 160 toman offires, reckoning for each fire a family dwelling in one house.Each toman is 10,000, which makes 1,600,000 families[12]; and forall this population there is only one Nestorian church, all therest being idolaters. Every householder is obliged to havewritten over his door the names of every individual in hisfamily, whether males or females, as also the number of horses,adding or effacing as the family increases or diminishes, andthis rule is observed in all the cities of Mangi and Kathay.Those also who keep inns, must write down in a book the names ofall their guests, with the day and hour of their arrival anddeparture; and these books are sent daily to the magistrates whopreside at the market places. The revenues which accrue to thekhan from Quinsai, and the other cities under its authority, are,first from salt eight tomans of gold, every toman being 80,000sazzi, and a sazzi is more than a gold florin, which will amountto six millions, and four hundred thousand ducats. The cause ofthis is, that being near the sea, there are many lakes or salinesof sea water, which dry up and coagulate into salt in summer, andfive other provinces in Mangi are supplied from the coast ofQuinsai. This province produces plenty of sugar, which pays, likeall other spices, three and a third in the hundred, which islikewise paid for rice-wine. All the twelve companies, which, wesaid before, have twelve thousand shops, and all merchants whobring goods hither by sea, or carry any away, pay a similar rate.Those who come from India or other remote countries, pay ten percent. All breeding cattle, and all productions of the earth, assilk, rice, corn, and the like, pay to the khan. The wholecomputation being made in my presence, amounted yearly, besidesthe above mentioned produce from salt, to two hundred and tentomans of gold, which are equal to sixteen millions and eighthundred thousand golden ducats[13].

[11] Supposing Kua-hing to have been Quan-sai, nocity appears in the direction indicated in the text for thesituation of Gampu. But if we might venture to suppose north-eastan error for south, the city of Hanfcheou is nearly at thedistance mentioned by Marco, and stands at the bottom of a deepbay of the ocean, in a very convenient situation for trade,communicating with Kua-hing by the great canal--E.

[12] Multiplying this number of families by five,would give a population of eight millions of individuals of everyage and sex. Fortunately Marco permits us to suppose that thispopulation belonged to the viceroyalty, or province over whichQuinsai presided.--E.

[13] Either this computation, or that of the duty onsalt, is erroneous. If 8 tomans are 6,400,000 ducats, 210 tomanswould amount to 168,000,000, instead of the sum in the text. Ifthe latter computation be right, 16,800,000 ducats from 210tomans; the duty on salt, or 8 tomans, ought only to have been640,000 ducats, which appears to be the truth. The whole revenue,therefore, of the province, will be 17,440,000 ducats, equal toL. 2,911,250 Sterling, at 3s. 7d. the ducat.--E.

A days journey from Quinsai to the south-east, we pass thewhole way through houses, villages, fine gardens, and abundantcultivation, and then come to a fine city called Tapin-zu. Threedays hence is Uguiu, and two days farther, we still ride pastcastles, cities, and well cultivated fields, so near adjoining,that the whole seems, to travellers, like one continued city; inthis district are great canes, fifteen paces long, and four palmsthick. Two days farther is the large and handsome city of Congui,and travelling thence for four days, through places well filledwith industrious people, having plenty of beeves, buffaloes,goats, and swine, but no sheep, we come to the city of Zengian,which is built on a hill in the middle of a river, which, afterencompassing it, divides into two branches, one of which runs tothe south-east and the other to the north-west. Three daysjourney thence, through a most pleasant country, exceedingly wellinhabited, we come to the large city of Gieza, which is the lastin the kingdom of Quinsai, After this we enter into anotherprovince of the kingdom of Mangi called Concha, the principalcity of which is Fugiu, by which you travel six days journeysouth-east, through hills and dales, always finding inhabitedplaces, and plenty of beasts, fowls, and game, and some stronglions are found in the mountains and forests. Ginger, galingal,and other spices, grow here in great plenty, and there is anherb, of which the fruit has the same colour, smell, and effectwith saffron, which it is not, and is much used in theirmeats[15], The inhabitants are idolaters, and subjects of thegreat khan, and eat mans flesh, if the person has not died ofdisease, even considering it as better flavoured than any other.When they go into the fields, they shave to the ears, and painttheir faces with azure. All their soldiers serve on foot, exceptthe captains, who are on horseback, and their arms are swords andlances. They are very cruel, and when they kill an enemy, theyimmediately drink his blood, and afterwards eat his flesh.

[14] Besides the utter discrepancy of these names tothose of any cities now in China, it appears obvious, that thedirection of the itinerary in the text is erroneous or corrupted.We have been already on the ocean or bay of Nankin, the easternboundary of China and of the land; yet the text persistscontinually to travel south-east, which is impossible. Thedirection of the itinerary must have been westwards, probablysouth-west.--E.

[15] This was probably Turmeric, so much used in theEastern cookery, though it is the root which isemployed.--E.

After six days journey is Quelinfu, a great city with threebridges, each of which is eight paces broad, and above an hundredpaces long. The men are great merchants and manufacturers, andthe women are fair and delicately shaped. The country producesplenty of ginger and galingal, and great abundance of silk andcotton. I was told, but saw them not, that they have hens withoutfeathers, hairy like cats, which yet lay eggs, and are good toeat[16]. In this part of the country there are many lions, whichmake the ways very dangerous. After three days journey, we arrivein a populous country inhabited by idolaters, who make greatquantities of silk stuffs. The chief city is Unguem, near whichabundance of sugar is produced, and sent from thence to Cambalu.Before the reduction of this country by the great Khan, theinhabitants of this country could only manufacture a bad kind ofsugar, by boiling down the juice of the cane into a black paste;but certain inhabitants from Babylonia, taught them refineit by means of the ashes of a certain tree[17]. Fifteen milesfarther is the city of Cangiu, still in the province of Concha,and here the Khan has always an army in readiness for keeping thecountry under subjection. Through this city there runs a river ofa mile broad, with handsome buildings on both sides, and theriver is constantly covered with vessels carrying sugar and othergoods. This river disembogues itself at the distance of five daysjourney south-east from Cangiu, into the sea at Zaitum all thecountry between being extremely pleasant, and abounding in treesand shrubs of camphor. Zaitum is a famous port, and muchfrequented by ships with rich cargoes from India, for the supplyof Mangi and Kathay, and from this port the productions of theseregions are dispersed all over India. At this port suchquantities of pepper are imported, that what comes throughAlexandria into our western world is not to be compared to it,being hardly an hundredth part. The concourse of merchants tothis famous emporium is incredible, as it is one of the mostcommodious ports in the whole world, and is exceedinglyproductive in revenue to the great Khan, who receives ten in thehundred of all merchandize. The merchants pay likewise so highfor freights, that not above a half of their cargoes remains tothemselves for sale, and yet of that moiety they make immenseprofits. The inhabitants of Zaitum are idolaters, and much givento pleasure, and in it there are many artizans employed inembroidery and arras-work[18].

[16] Obviously what are now called Friesland, butmore properly frizzled hens.--E.

[17] In the manufacture of sugar it is necessary toneutralize a certain redundant acid in the juice of the cane, bya fit proportion of some alkaline ingredient to enable the sugarto crystallize: The ordinary temper, as it is called, forthis purpose, in the West Indies, is lime, but any alkali willproduce nearly the same effect. This subject will be fullyelucidated in that part of our work which is peculiarlyappropriated to the sugar colonies in the WestIndies,--E.

[18] There can hardly be a doubt that the Zaiturn ofMarco is the modern Canton; yet from the causes already mentionedin several notes, it is next to an impossibility to trace theroute or itinerary from Quinsai to this place.--E.

This river is large, wide, and swift, one arm of it reachingto Quinsai, and the other to Zaitum[19], and at the parting ofthese branches, the city of Tringui is situated, where porcelaindishes are made[20]. I was told of a certain earth which is castup into conical heaps, and left exposed to the weather for thirtyor forty years without stirring; after which, refined by time, itis made into dishes, which are painted and baked in furnaces; andso cheap is this manufacture, that eight of these dishes may bebought for one Venetian groat[21]. From this province of Concha,the great Khan derives nearly as great a revenue as he does fromQuinsai. In these two provinces I travelled, but in none of dieother provinces of Mangi; in all of which one language Is used,with considerable variety in dialect, and but one kind ofwriting.

[19] This is an obvious error, corruption, orinterpolation; for on no conceivable hypothesis of the situationsof Quinsai and Zaitum, can any river be found in China whichanswers to this description.--E.

[20] This is the only hint in Marco, of thepeculiarly famous manufacture of China, from which all the bestearthen ware of Europe has acquired this name as parexcellence. From this circ*mstance, and from the fame ofNankin for this manufacture, I strongly suspect that this passagehas been foisted in by some ignorant or careless editor in awrong place.--E.

[21] It is singular that Marco should make no mentionwhatever of the peculiar beverage of the Chinese, tea,though particularly described both in name and use, by theMahometan travellers in the ninth century, four hundredyears earlier, as used in all the cities ofChina.--E.

SECTION XVII

Of the island of Zipangu, and of the unsuccessful attemptsmade by the Tartars for its Conquest.

I shall now leave the country of Mangi, and proceed todiscourse of India the greater, the middle, and lesser; in whichI have been, both in the service of the great khan, and also onour return home along with the queen, who was sent from Kathay toArgon. The ships which are built in the kingdom of Mangi are madeof fir, having only one deck, on which are built twenty cabins,more or less, according to their size, each for one merchant.They have each a good rudder, and four masts, with four sails,which they raise or let down at pleasure, but some have only twomasts. Some of the largest ships have thirteen divisions in theinside, made of boards let into each other, so that if, by theblow of a whale, or by touching on a rock, water should get intoone of these divisions, it can go no farther, and the leak beingfound, is soon stopped. They are all built double, or have twocourses of boards, one within the other, both of which are wellcaulked with oakum, and nailed with iron; but they are notpitched, as they have no pitch in Mangi, instead of which theyare payed all over with the oil of a certain tree, mixed up withlime and chopped hemp which binds faster than pitch or lime. Thelargest of these ships have three hundred marines, others twohundred, or an hundred and fifty, according to their size; andthey carry from five to six thousand bags of pepper. In ancienttimes they used to build larger ships than now; but owing to thegreat numbers of islands and shoals in some places of these seas,they now build them less[1]. Besides their sails, they use oars.occasionally to propel these ships, four men being employed toeach oar. The larger ships are usually attended by two or threeof a smaller size, able to carry a thousand bags of pepper, andhaving sixty mariners in each and these smaller ships aresometimes employed to tow the greater vessels. Each of the largerships hare ten small boats for fishing and other services, whichare fastened aloft on their sides, and let down when wanted foruse. After having been employed for a year, these ships aresheathed all over, so that they then have three courses ofboards: and they proceed in this manner till they sometimes haresix courses, alter which they are broken up.

[1] In this passage, in the edition of Harris, thesense seems obscurely to insinuate that this had been occasionedby the sea having broken down or overwhelmed certain lands orislands, producing numbers of smaller islands and extensiveshoals.--E.

Zipangu[2] is a very large island on the east, and fifteenhundred miles distant from the shores of Mangi. The people ofthis island are of a white complexion and of gentle manners, andhave a king of their own. They have gold in great plenty, as Jewmerchants report thither, and no gold is allowed to be exported.Such as have traded to this island speak of the kings palace asbeing covered over with gold as our churches are with lead, andthat the windows and floors are likewise of gold. It abounds inpearls, and is amazingly rich. Hearing of the vast opulence ofthis island, Kublai Khan sent two of his barons, Abasa andVensaasin[3], with a fleet and a great army, to attempt theconquest. Sailing from Zaitum and Quinsai[4], they arrived safelyon the island, but falling out between themselves, they were onlyable to take one city, all the garrison of which they beheaded,except eight persons, who could not be wounded with steel,because each had an enchanted stone inclosed between the skin andflesh of their right arms. These men were beaten to death withclubs, by order of the generals. Soon after this a violent northwind arose, which flew so hard as greatly to endanger the ships,some of which were lost, and others blown out to sea. On this,the whole army re-embarked, and sailed to an uninhabited island,at the distance of about ten miles: But the tempest continuing,many of the ships were wrecked, and about thirty thousand of thepeople escaped on shore, without arms or provisions; the twogenerals with a few of the principal persons, returning home.After this tempest ceased, the people of Zipangu sent over anarmy, in a fleet of ships, to seize the Tartars; but havinglanded without any order, the Tartars took the advantage of arising ground in the middle of the island, under cover, of which,they wheeled suddenly round between the Zipanguers and the ships,which had been left unmanned, with ail their streamers displayed.In these ships, the Tartars sailed to a principal city ofZipangu, into which they were admitted without any suspicion,finding hardly any within its walls except women, the men beingall absent on the expedition into the uninhabited island. TheZipanguers collected a new fleet and army to besiege the city,and the Tartars receiving no succour, were constrained tosurrender, after a defence of six months, on terms by which theirlives were spared. This happened in the year 1264[5]. For the badconduct of the two commanders, the great khan ordered one to bebeheaded, and sent the other to the desert island of Zerga, inwhich malefactors are punished, by sewing them up in the newflayed hide of a buffalo, which shrinks so much in drying, as toput them to exquisite torture, and brings them to a miserabledeath.

[2] Zipangu, Zipangri, or Cimpagu, is Japan withoutany doubt.--E.

[3] Named Abataa and Yonsaintin by Pinkerton, fromthe Trevigi edition. The latter Ven-san-sui, or Von-sain-cin, byhis name seems to have been a Chinese.--E.

[4] Called Caicon, or Jaiton in the Trevigi edition.Caicon is not very far removed from the sound of Cangtong orCanton, which has already been considered to be the Zaitum of thetext.--E.

[5] A.D. 1269, according to the Trevigiedition.--E.

The idols in Zipangu and the adjoining islands are strangelymade, some having the head of a bull, others of a hog, or a dog,and in other most monstrous fashions. Some have heads with fourfaces, others three heads on one neck, while some have faces ontheir shoulders. Some have four arms, others ten, or even anhundred arms; and that idol is reputed the most powerful, and isheld in greatest reverence, which has the greatest number. Whenasked the reason of making their idols in such distorted andridiculous forms, they answer that such is the custom which hasbeen handed down from their ancestors. It is reported of theseislanders, that they eat such of their enemies as they takeprisoners; esteeming human flesh a peculiar dainty. The sea inwhich Zipangu lies is called the sea of Chi orChin, or the sea over against Mangi, which is calledChan or Chint, in the language of that island. Thissea is so large, that mariners who have frequented it, say itcontains seven thousand four hundred and forty islands, most ofthem inhabited; and that in ail those islands there is no treewhich is not odoriferous, or does not bear fruit, or is notuseful in some other respects. In them likewise there are greatabundance of spices of various kinds, especially black arid whitepepper, and lignum aloes[6]. The ships of Zaitum are a whole yearon their voyage to and from Zipangu, going there during thewinter, and returning again in summer, as there are twoparticular winds which regularly prevail in these seasons.Zipangu is far distant from India. But I will now leave Zipangu,because I never was there, as it is not subject to the khan, andshall now return to Zaitum and the voyage from thence toIndia.

[6] Marco obviously extends this sea and theseislands to all those of the Chinese sea and the Indian ocean,from Sumatra in the SW. to Japan in the NE.--E.

SECTION XVIII.

Account of Various Countries, Provinces, Islands, andCities in the Indies.

Sailing from Zaitum, 1500 miles to the south westwards, wepass a gulf called Cheinan[1], which extends two months sail tothe northward, still confining on the south-east[2] of Mangi, andelsewhere, with Ania and Toloman, and other provinces mentionedformerly. Within it are infinite islands all in a mannerinhabited [3], and in them is found abundance of gold, and theytrade with each other. This gulf seems like another world; andafter 1500 miles sailing, is the rich and great country ofZiambar[4]. The people are idolaters, and pay an yearly tributeto the great khan of twenty elephants, and great quantities ofaloes wood. In the year 1268, hearing of the riches of thiscountry, the khan sent one of his generals, named Segatu, toinvade it, Acambute, who was then king of the country, was old,and chose to avoid the dangers and miseries of war, by agreeingto pay the before-mentioned tribute. In Ziambar there are manywoods of black ebony, of great value.

[1] Probably the gulph of Siam.--E.

[2] South-west, certainly.--E.

[3] The inlands in the gulf of Siam are small, andnot numerous; so that the passage is probably corrupted; and mayhave been in the original, "that, leaving the gulf of Cheinan onthe north, they left infinite islands, &c; on the south."After all, the gulf of Cheinan may mean the whole sea ofChina.--E.

[4] It is difficult to say precisely what division offarther India is here meant by Ziambar. 1500 miles would carry usto the coast of Malaya; but 1500 li, or about 500 miles reachonly to the coast of Cochin-China, or it may be Tsiompa. Ziambar,in the editions, is variously written Ciambau, Ciariban, andZiambar.--E.

Sailing thence for 1500 miles, betwixt the south andsoutheast, we came to Java[5], which is considered by mariners tobe the largest island in the world, being above 3000 miles incircumference. It is governed by a king who pays tribute to none;as, owing to the length and danger of the voyage, the great khanhas made no attempt to annex it to his vast dominions. Themerchants of Zaitum and Mangi, bring from thence abundance ofgold and spices. South and south-westwards six hundred miles, arethe islands of Sondur and Condur, both desolate, of which Sonduris the larger[6]. Fifty miles south-east from them is a rich andgreat province, or island, called Lochae[7]. The people areidolaters, and have both a king and language of their own. In itthere grows great plenty of Brazil wood; and it has much gold,many elephants, wild beasts, and fowls, and an excellent fruitcalled bercias, as large as lemons. The country is mountainousand savage, and the king permits no person to come into hisdominions, lest they should get acquainted with the county andattempt its conquest. It produces abundance of porcelain shells,which are transported to other places, where they serve asmoney.

[5] The direction of the voyage is here obviouslyerroneous, it must have been between the south and thesouth-west, or south-south-west. In the Trevigi edition, the Javaof this part of our text is Lava, and according to Valentine,Lava is the name of the principal city and kingdom in Borneo;which at all events must be the island here mentioned byMarco.--E.

[6] According to the Trevigi edition, as reported byPinkerton, these islands are only seven miles from Lava orBorneo. At about seventy miles distance to the south-west, thereare two islands named Caremata and Soorooto, which may be thosem*ntioned in the text.--E.

[7] Called Lochach in some of the editions, and saidto be 200 miles from Sondor and Condur. Whether this may beMa-lacca or Ma-laya, it is impossible todetermine.--E.

Five hundred miles southward from Lochae, is the isle ofPentan[8], a savage place, which produces sweet trees in all itswoods. For sixty miles of this voyage, between Lochae and Pentan,the sea in many places is only four fathoms deep Thirty miles tothe south-east from Pentan, is the island and kingdom ofMalaiur[9], which has a king and a peculiar language of its own,and has a great trade carried on in spices from Pentan. Onehundred miles south-east is Java the less[10], which is about twothousand miles in circuit, and is divided into eight kingdoms,each having its own language. I was in six of these kingdoms, ofwhich I shall give some account, omitting those I did notsee.

[8] In the Trevigi edition only five miles, and theisland is called Pentara. This may possibly be the island ofBintang in the south-eastern entrance of the straits ofMalacca.--E.

[9] Most probably the kingdom of Malacca. From theTrevigi edition Pinkerton calls this Malonir, and curiouslyidentifies Pepetam, Pentara, or Pentan, as the name of the cityand kingdom of Malonir or Malaiur.--E.

One of these kingdoms is Felech or Ferlach, in which theformerly idolatrous inhabitants of the cities have been convertedto the Mahometan religion, in consequence of much trade andintercourse with the Saracens; but the mountaineers are verysavage, eating human flesh, and living upon every kind of uncleanfood, and they worship all day what they first happen to meet inthe morning. The next kingdom is called Basma, which has alanguage peculiar to itself, the people living without law orreligion like beasts: But they sometimes send hawks to the khan,who lays claim to the sovereignty of the whole island. Besideswild elephants, there are unicorns in this country, which aremuch less than elephants, being haired like the buffalo, buttheir feet are like those of die elephant. These animals have onehorn in the middle of their foreheads; but they hurt no one withthis weapon, using only their tongue and knee, for they trampleand press any one down with their feet and knees, and theirtongue is beset with long sharp prickles, with which they tear aperson to pieces. The head is like that of a wild boar, which theanimal, carries hanging down to the ground. They are filthybeasts that love to stand and wallow in the mire, and they do notin the least resemble those unicorns which are said to be foundin some other parts of the world, which allow themselves to betaken by maids[11]. In this country, there are many apes ofdifferent kinds, some of them, being black with faces like men,which they put into boxes, preserved with spices; these they sellto merchants, who carry them to various parts of the world, andpass them for pigmies or little men. This country likewiseproduces large goshawks, as black as ravens, which are excellentfor sport.

[10] If right in our former conjectures, the islandspoken of in the text must be Sumatra not that now called Java.Indeed, the mention immediately afterwards of the islands ofNocueran and Angaman 150 miles to the north, which can only hethe Nicobar and Andaman islands, establish the identity ofJava-minor, here called Java the less, andSumatra.--E.

[11] The animal here described under the name ofunicorn is the Rhinoceros monoceros, or one-horned rhinoceros ofnaturalists; but the single horn is placed a little above thenose, not on the middle of the forehead, as here erroneouslydescribed by Marco.--E.

Samare or Samara is the next kingdom, in which I remained forfive months against my will, in consequence of bad weather[12],during all which time, none of the stars in the constellation ofthe great-bear were seen. Being forced to remain here for fivemonths. I landed with 2000 men, and erected fortifications todefend us against any unforeseen attack from the savage cannibalsof the island, with whom we established a trade for provisions.They have excellent wine, both red and white, made from the palmtree, which is a very wholesome beverage, as it is medicinal forconsumption, the dropsy, and for disorders of the spleen. Theyhave likewise abundance of fine fish, and eat of all sorts offlesh, without making any difference. Their cocco nuts are aslarge as a mans head, and the middle of them is full of apleasant liquor, better than wine.

[12] He had evidently missed the Monsoon, and had toawait its return. From this kingdom or division of the island, itprobably acquired the name of Sumatra, by which it is known inmodern geography. From the circ*mstance in the text of not seeingthe great bear, it is probable that Marco was stopped near thesouth-eastern extremity of the island. What is here translatedthe great bear, Pinkerton calls, from the Trevigi edition delMaistro. The polar star was invisible ofcourse.--E.

Dragoian[13] is another of those kingdoms claimed by the khan,which has a king and a peculiar language. I was told of anabominable custom in this country; that when any one is sick, hisrelatives send to inquire at the sorcerers if he is to recover?If they answer no, the kindred then send for a person, whoseoffice it is to strangle the sick person, whom they immediatelycut in pieces and devour, even to the marrow of their bones, forthey allege, that if any part were to remain, worms would breedin it, which would be in want of food, and would therefore die,to the great torture of the soul of the dead person. Theyafterwards carry away the bones, and conceal them carefully incaves in the mountains, that no beast may touch them. If they canlay their hands on any stranger, they treat him in the samebarbarous manner.

[13] Called Deragola by Pinkerton, from the Trevigiedition.--E.

Lambri is the fifth kingdom of Java-minor, or Sumatra, inwhich is great plenty of Brazil wood, some of the seeds of whichI brought to Venice, but they would not vegetate, as the climatewas too cold for them. In this country there are great numbers ofunicorns or rhinoceroses, and plenty of other beasts and birds.Fanfur is the sixth kingdom, having the best camphor, which Issold weight for weight with gold. In that kingdom, they make akind of meal from great and long trees, as thick as two men areable to fathom. Having taken off the thin bark, the wood withinis only about three fingers thick, all the rest being pith, fromwhich the meal is made. This pith is broken to pieces, andstirred among water, the light dross swimming, and being thrownaway, while the finer parts settle at the bottom, and is madeinto paste[14]. I brought some of this to Venice, which tastesnot much unlike barley bread. The wood of this tree is so heavyas to sink in water like iron, and of it they make excellentlances, but being very heavy, they are under the necessity ofmaking them short. These are hardened in the fire, and sharpened,and when so prepared, they will pierce through armour easier thanif made of iron. About 150 miles to the northward of Lambri,there are two islands, one called Nocueran and the otherAngaman,[l5] in the former of which the inhabitants live likebeasts, and go entirely naked, but have excellent trees, such ascloves, red and white sanders, coco-nuts, Brazil, and variousspices in the other island the inhabitants are equally savage,and are said to have the heads and teeth of dogs.

[14] He here distinctly indicates the manufacture ofsego.--E.

[15] Nicobar and Andaman, on the east side of the bayof Bengal; called Necunera and Namgama in the Trevigiedition.--E.

SECTION XIX.

Of the Island of Ceylon, and various parts of HitherIndia.

Sailing from Angaman 1000 miles west, and a little to thesouth, we come to the island of Zelan or Ceylon, which is 2400miles in circumference; but was anciently 3600 miles round, asappears from the former charts of the country, the north windshaving occasioned the sea to destroy a great part of it. This isthe finest island in the world, and its king is called Sendernaz.The men and women are idolaters, and go entirely naked, except asmall cloth before them. They grow no corn except rice; and theyhave plenty of oil of sesame, milk, flesh, palm wine, Brazilwood, the best rubies in the world, sapphires, topazes,amethysts, and other gems. The king of the island is said to havethe finest ruby that ever was seen, as long as the hand, and asthick as a mans wrist, without spot or blemish, and glowing likea fire. Cublai-Khan once sent to purchase this ruby, offering thevalue of a city for it; but the king answered that he would notpart with it for all the treasure in the world, because it hadbelonged to his ancestors. The men of this island are unfit forsoldiers, and hire others when they have occasion to go towar.

There is a high mountain in Ceylon, to the top of which no onecan ascend, without the assistance of iron chains, and on whichthe Saracens report that the sepulchre of Adam is situated; butthe idolaters say that it is the body of Sogomon Burchan, thefirst founder of idol worship, son of a king of the island, whobetook himself to a recluse life of religious contemplation onthe top of this mountain, from whence no pleasures or persuasionscould induce him to withdraw. After his death, his father causedan image of him to be made of solid gold, and commanded all hissubjects to adore him as their god: and hence they say is theorigin of idol worship. People come here in pilgrimage fromremote regions, and there his fore-teeth, and a dish which heused, are solemnly exhibited as holy relics. As the Saracenspretend that these belonged to Adam, Cublai-Khan was induced, in1281, to send ambassadors to the king of this country, whoobtained the dish, two teeth, and some of the hairs of SogomonBarchan: These the great khan caused to be received without thecity with great reverence and solemnity, by the whole people ofCambalu, and brought into his presence with great honour.

Sixty miles to the west of Ceylon is Moabar[1]. This is noisland, but lies on the firm continent, which may be called thegreater India. In it there are four kings, the principal one ofwhom is Sinder Candi, in whose kingdom they fish for pearls,between Ceylon and Moabar, in a bay where the sea does not exceedten or twelve fathoms deep. Here the divers descend to thebottom, and in bags or nets which are tied about their bodies,bring up the oysters which contain the pearls. On account ofcertain great fish which kill the divers, they hire bramins tocharm them from doing harm, and these have the twentieth part ofthe pearls, the king getting the tenth part[2]; These oysters areonly found from the beginning of April to the end of May in thisplace; but from the beginning of September to the middle ofOctober, they are got in another place, about three hundred milesdistant. The king of this country goes naked, like the rest ofhis subjects, except that he wears some honourable marks ofdistinction, as a collar of precious stones about his neck, and athread of silk hanging down to his breast, on which are strung104 large fine pearls, by which he counts his prayers as with arosary. These prayers are merely the word Pacaupa,repeated 104 times over. He wears a sort of bracelets on threeplaces of his arms and on his legs, and rings on all his fingersand toes. This king has a thousand concubines, and if any womanpleases his fancy, he takes her away from whoever she may happento belong to. He once did this unjust deed to his own brother, inconsequence of which a civil war had nearly ensued; but as theirmother threatened to cut off her own breasts if they continuedtheir enmity, they were reconciled. He has a numerous guard ofhorsem*n, who are under a vow, when he dies, to throw themselvesinto the fire in which his body is consumed, that they may servehim in the next world.

[1] This Pinkerton calls Moabar on the margin, andNachabar in the text, of his dissertation on the Trevigi editionof Marco Polo, very justly observing that it refers toCoromandel, or the Carnatic below the gauts. Harris erroneouslysubstitutes Malabar. Moabar and Madura may have a similar origin,as may Nachabar and Nega-patnam.--E.

[2] The fish here alluded to are sharks; and the samecustom of employing bramins to defend the fishermen, byconjuration, against this formidable enemy, is continued to thepresent day.--E.

This prince, and the other kings of Moabar, buy their horsesfrom Ormus and other parts, as their country produces none, or ifany happen to be bred there, they are ugly and useless[3].Condemned persons often offer themselves to die in honour of aparticular idol; on which the devotee puts himself to death withtwelve knives, giving himself twelve deep wounds in various partsof his body, calling out aloud on the infliction of each, that hedoes this in honour of such or such an idol; and the last of allis through his own heart, after which his body is burned by hiskindred. The women of this country voluntarily burn themselvesalong with the bodies of their deceased husbands, and those whoneglect to do this are held in disrepute. They worship idols, andmost of them hold cows in such high veneration, that they wouldnot eat their holy flesh for any consideration on earth. Acertain tribe is called Gaui, who feed upon such oxen as die ofthemselves, but never kill any. These Gaui are descended from thepeople who slew St Thomas, and dare not enter the shrine in whichhis body is preserved. The people of this country sit on carpetson the ground, using no chairs or stools. Their only grain isrice. They are not a martial people, and kill no animals; butwhen they are inclined for animal food, they get the Saracens orsome other people to kill for them. Both men and women washthemselves twice a-day, and always before eating; and those whoneglect this ceremony are reputed heretics. They never touchtheir meat with their left hands, which they only employ forwiping themselves, or other unclean purposes. Each drinks fromhis own pot, neither do they allow it to touch their mouths, buthold it above, and pour in the drink; and to strangers who haveno pot, they pour liquor into their hands, from which they mustdrink, as they will not allow their pots to be touched by anyother person.

[3] Mr Pinkerton, from the Trevigi edition, has thispassage as follows: "The king of Vor, one of the princes ofNacbabar, purchases about 10,000 horses yearly from the countryof Cormos, formerly mentioned, each horse costing fivesazi of gold."--E.

Justice is severely administered for crimes; and in somecases, a creditor has a singular manner of compelling payment, bydrawing a circle round his debtor, out of which he must not stirtill he has satisfied his creditor, or given security for thedebt, under the pain of death. I, Marco, once saw the king onhorseback thus encircled, by a merchant whom he had long put offwith delays; and the king would not come out of the circle, whichthe merchant had drawn; till he had sent for the means of payingthe merchant, all the people who were present highly applaudingthe kings justice. They are very scrupulous of drinking wine, andthose who are addicted to that practice, are held disreputableand unworthy of being admitted as witnesses; which is the caselikewise with those who go to sea, as they reckon them desperatepersons. They look on letchery as no sin. In the months of June,July, and August, they have no rains, and it is excessively hot,insomuch, that they could not live if it were not for therefreshing winds which blow from the sea. They have manyphysiognomists and soothsayers, who observe omens from birds andbeasts, and other signs. These people consider one hour in everyday of the week as unlucky, which they name Choiach, and which isdifferent on all the days, all of which are carefully recorded intheir books, and they are curious observers of nativities. Atthirteen years of age, their boys are put out to gain theirliving, who go about buying and selling, by means of a smallstock given them to begin with. In the pearl season, these boyswill buy a few pearls, and sell them again for a small profit tothe merchants, who are unable to endure the sun. What gain theyget they bring to their mothers, to lay out for them, as it isnot lawful for them to live at their fathers cost. Theirdaughters are dedicated to the service of the idols, andappointed by the priests to sing and dance in presence of theidols; and they frequently set victuals before the idols for sometime, as if they would eat, singing all the while, when they fallto eat themselves, and then return home. The great men have akind of litters, made of large canes artificially wrought, whichare fixed in some high situation, to avoid being bitten bytarantulas[4], and other vermin, and for the benefit of freshair.

[4] Tarantulas is assuredly, a mistake here forcentipedes and scorpions, which are common all overIndia.--E.

The sepulchre of St Thomas is in a small city, not muchfrequented by merchants, but very much by Christians andSaracens, on account of devotion. The Saracens hold him as agreat prophet or holy man, and call him Ananias. The Christianstake of a red earth which is found in the place where he wasslain, which they mix with water, and administer to the sick withgreat reverence. It happened in the year 1288, that a greatprince, who had more rice than he had room to keep it in, choseto make bold with that room in St Thomas's church in whichpilgrims are received, and converted it into a granary: But hewas so terrified by a vision of St Thomas in the night following,that he was glad to remove it with great speed. The inhabitantsare black, although not born so, but by constantly anointingthemselves with the oil of jasmine they become quite black, whichthey esteem a great beauty, insomuch, that they paint their idolsblack, and represent the devil as white. The cow worshipperscarry with them to battle some of the hairs of an ox, as apreservative against dangers.

SECTION XX.

Of the Kingdom of Murfili, and the Diamond Mines, and someother Countries of India.

Murfili or Monsul[1], is five hundred miles northwards fromMoabar, and is inhabited by idolaters. In the mountains of thiscountry there are diamonds, which the people search for after thegreat rains. They afterwards ascend these mountains in thesummer, though with great labour, on account of the excessiveheat, and find abundance of these precious stones among thegravel; and are on these occasions much exposed to danger fromthe vast numbers of serpents which shelter themselves in theholes and caverns of the rocks, in which the diamonds are foundin greatest abundance. Among other methods of obtaining thediamonds, they make, use of the following artifice: There aregreat numbers of white eagles, which rest in the upper parts ofthese rocks for the sake of feeding on the serpents, which arefound at the bottom of the deep vallies and precipices where themen dare not go. They therefore throw pieces of raw meat downinto these deep places, which the eagles seeing, stoop for, andseize with all the little stones and gravel which adhere to them.The people afterwards search the eagles nests when they leavethem, and carefully pick out all the little stones they can find,and even carefully examine the eagles dung in quest ofdiamonds[2]. The kings and great men of the country keep all thelargest and finest diamonds that are procured from these mines,and allow the merchants to sell the rest.

[1] Muis in the Trevigi edition, according toPinkerton, and which, he says, is 10OO miles, instead of the 500in the text. This certainly refers to Golconda. The districts ofIndia have been continually changing their names with changes ofdominion; and one or other of these names given by Marco to thediamond country, may at one time have been the designation ofsome town or district at the mines--E.

[2] One would suppose we were here reading a fragmentof the adventures of Sinbad the sailor, from the Arabian Nights.But on this and a few other similar occasions in the narrative ofMarco, it is always proper to notice carefully what he says onhis own knowledge, and what he only gives on the report ofothers.--E.

Lac is westwards from the shrine of St Thomas, from whence theBramins have their original, who are the honestest merchants inthe world, and will not lie on any account. They faithfully keepany thing committed to their charge, or as brokers, they willsell or barter merchandize for others, with great fidelity. Theyare known by a cotton thread, which they wear over theirshoulders, and tied under their arms across their breast. Theyhave but one wife, are great astrologers, of great abstinence,and live to great ages. They constantly chew a certain herb,which keeps their teeth good and helps digestion. There arecertain religious persons among them called Tangui, wholive with great austerity, going altogether naked; theirprincipal worship is addressed to cows, of which they wear asmall brass image on their foreheads, and they make an ointmentof ox bones, with which they anoint themselves very devoutly.They neither kill nor eat any living creature, and even abstainfrom green herbs, or fresh roots till dried, esteeming everything that lives to have a soul. They use no dishes, but laytheir victuals on dry leaves. They ease themselves in the sands,and they disperse it, lest it should breed worms, which might diefor want of food. Some of these people are said to live to 150years of age, and when they die their bodies are burned.

Cael is a great city governed by Aster, one of the fourbrethren[3], who is very rich and kind to merchants. He is saidto have three hundred concubines. All the people this country arecontinually chewing a leaf called Tembul[4], with lime andspices. Coulam[5] is 500 miles south-west from Moabar, beingchiefly inhabited by idolaters, who are very much addicted tovenery, and marry their near kindred, and even their own sisters.It also contains Jews and Christians, who have a peculiarlanguage. They have pepper, Brazil, indigo, black lions, parrotsof many kinds, some white as snow, some azure, and others red,peaco*cks very different from ours, and much larger, and theirfruits are very large. In this country there are many astrologersand physicians. In Camari, there are apes so large, that theyseem like men, and here we again came in sight of the north star.Delai has a king, and its inhabitants have a peculiar language[6]and are idolaters. Ships from Mangi come here for trade.

[3] This obscure expression seems to imply, thatAster was one of the four kings in Moabar, or theCarnatic.--E.

[4] Now called Betel, and still universally used inIndia in the same manner.--E.

[5] Coulam may possibly be Cochin or Calicut, on theMalabar coast as being south-west from Moabar or Coromandel, andhaving Jews and Christians; as the original trade from the RedSea to India was on this coast.--E.

[6] Camari or Comati, and Delai or Orbai, areobviously the names of towns and districts on the Malabar coastgoing north from Coulain. Yet Comari may refer to the countryabout Cape Comorin.--E.

Malabar is a kingdom in the west, in which, and in Guzerat[7],there are many pirates, who sometimes put to sea with an hundredsail of vessels, and rob merchants. In these expeditions theytake their wives and children to sea along with them, where theyremain all summer. In Guzerat there is great abundance of cotton,which grows on trees six fathoms high, that last for twentyyears; but after twelve years old, the cotton of these trees isnot good for spinning; and is only fit for making quilts.

[7] According to Pinkerton, these are called Melibarand Gesurach in the Trevigi edition, and he is disposed toconsider the last as indicating Geriach, because of the pirates.But there seems no necessity for that nicety, as all thenorth-western coast of India has always been addicted to maritimeplunder or piracy.--E.

Canhau is a great city, having plenty of frankincense, andcarrying on a great trade in horses. In Cambaia is much indigo,buckram, and cotton. sem*nath or Sebeleth, is a kingdom ofidolaters, who are very good people, and greatly occupied intrade. Resmacoran is a great kingdom of idolaters and Saracens,and is the last province towards the north in the Greater India.Near this there are said to be two islands, one inhabited by menand the other by women; the men visiting their wives only duringthe months of March, April, and May, and then returning to theirown island; and it is reported, that the air of that country,admits of no other procedure. The women keep their sons tilltwelve years old, and then send them to their fathers. Thesepeople are Christians, having a bishop, who is subject to thearchbishop of Socotora; they are good fishermen, and have greatstore of amber. The archbishop of Socotora[8] is not subject tothe Pope, but to a prelate called Zatulia, who resides at Bagdat.The people of Socotora are said to be great enchanters, thoughexcommunicated for the practice by their prelate, and arereported to raise contrary winds to bring back the ships of thosewho have wronged them, that they may obtain satisfaction.

[8] Socotora is called Scorsia or Scoria in theTrevigi edition.--E.

SECTION XXI.

Of Madagascar, Ethiopia, Abyssinia, and several otherCountries[1].

[1] This concluding section may be considered as akind of appendix, in which Marco has placed several unconnectedhearsay notices of countries where he never had beenpersonally.--E.

A thousand miles south from Socotora is Magaster[2] orMadagascar, one of the largest and richest islands in theworld[3], 3000 miles in circumference, which is inhabited bySaracens, and governed by four old men. The currents of the seain those parts are of prodigious force. The people live bymerchandize, and sell vast quantifies of elephants teeth [4].Mariners report strange stories of a prodigiously large bird likean eagle, called Ruch, said to be found in thiscountry.

[2] Mandeigascar in the Trevigi edition, andcertainly meant for Madagascar.--E.

[3] Madagascar has no pretensions to riches or trade,and never had; so that Marco must have been imposed upon by someSaracen or Arab mariner. Its size, climate, and soil certainlyfit it for becoming a place of vast riches and population; but itis one almost continued forest, inhabited by numerous independentand hostile tribes of barbarians. Of this island, a minuteaccount will appear in an after part of thiswork.--E.

[4] There are no elephants in Madagascar, yet theseteeth might have been procured from southernAfrica.--E.

Zensibar or Zanguebar, is also said to be of great extent, andinhabited by a very deformed people; and the country abounds inelephants and antelopes, and a species of sheep very unlike toours.

I have heard from mariners and skilful pilots, much versant inthe Indian seas, and have seen in their writings, that these seascontain 12,700 islands, inhabited or desert.

In the Greater India, which is between Moabar or theCoromandel coast on the east, round to Chesmacoran on thenorth-west, there are thirteen kingdoms. India Minor is fromZiambo to Murfili[5], in which are eight kingdoms and manyislands.

[5] By India Minor he obviously means what is usuallycalled farther India, or India beyond the Ganges, from thefrontiers of China to Moabar, or the north part of the Coromandelcoast, including the islands.--E.

The second or Middle India is called Abascia[6], of which thechief king is a Christian, who has six other kings subject to hisauthority, three of whom are Christians and three of themMahometans; there are also Jews in his dominions. St Thomas,after preaching in Nubia, came to Abascia, where he preached forsome time, and then went to Moabar or Coromandel. The Abyssiniansare valiant soldiers, always at war with the sultan of Aden andthe people of Nubia. I was told, that in 1288, the great emperorof the Abyssinians was extremely desirous to have visitedJerusalem; but being dissuaded from the attempt, on account ofthe Saracen kingdoms which were in the way, he sent a piousbishop to perform his devotions for him at the holy sepulchre. Onhis return, the bishop was made prisoner by the sultan of Aden,and circumcised by force. On this affront, the Abyssinian monarchraised an army, with which he defeated the sultan and two otherSaracen kings, and took and destroyed the city of Aden. Abyssiniais, rich in gold. Escier, subject to Aden, is forty miles distantto the south-east, and produces abundance of fine whitefrankincense, which is procured by making incisions in the barkof certain small trees, and is a valuable merchandize. Some ofthe people on that coast, from want of corn, use fish, which theyhave in great abundance, instead of bread, and also feed theirbeasts on fish. They are most abundantly taken in the months ofMarch, April, and May.

[6] Abyssinia, here taken in the most extended sense,including all the western coast of the Red Sea, and EasternAfrica.--E.

I now return to some provinces more to the north, where manyTartars dwell, who have a king called Caidu, of the race ofZingis, but who is entirely independent. These Tartars, observantof the customs of their ancestors, dwell not in cities, castles,or fortresses, but continually roam about, along with their king,in the plains and forests, and are esteemed true Tartars. Theyhave no corn of any kind, but have multitudes of horses, cattle,sheep, and other beasts, and live on flesh and milk, in greatpeace. In their country there are white bears of large size,twenty palms in length; very large wild asses, little beastscalled rondes, from which we have the valuable fur calledsables, and various other animals producing fine furs, which theTartars are very skilful in taking. This country abounds in greatlakes, which are frozen over, except for a few months in everyyear, and in summer it is hardly possible to travel, on accountof marshes and waters; for which reason, the merchants who go tobuy furs, and who have to travel for fourteen days through thedesert, have wooden houses at the end of each days journey, wherethey barter with the inhabitants, and in winter they travel insledges without wheels, quite flat at the bottom, and risingsemicircularly at the top, and these are drawn by great dogs,yoked in couples, the sledgeman only with his merchant and furs,sitting within[7].

[7] This paragraph obviously alludes to the Tartarkingdom of Siberia.--E.

Beyond these Tartars is a country reaching to the extremestnorth, called the Obscure land, because the sun neverappears during the greatest part of the winter months, and theair is perpetually thick and darkish, as is the case with ussometimes in hazy mornings. The inhabitants are pale and squat,and live like beasts, without law, religion, or king. The Tartarsoften rob them of their cattle during the dark months; and lestthey might lose their way in these expeditions they ride on mareswhich have sucking foals, leaving these at the entrance of thecountry, under a guard; and when they have got possession of anybooty, they give the reins to the mares, which make the best oftheir way to rejoin their foals. In their, long-continuedsummer[8], these northern people take many of the finest furs,some of which are carried into Russia, which is a great countrynear that northern land of darkness. The people in Russia havefair complexions, and are Greek Christians, paying tribute to theking of the Tartars in the west, on whom they border. In theeastern parts of Russia there is abundance of fine furs, wax, andmines of silver; and I am told the country reaches to thenorthern ocean, in which there are islands which abound infalcons and ger-falcons.

[8] The summer in this northern country of theSamojeds is extremely short; but the expression here used, mustallude to the long-continued summer day, when, for severalmonths, the sun never sets.--E.

CHAPTER XII.

Travels of Oderic of Portenau, into Chinaand the East, in 1318.[1]

[1] Hakluyt, II. 142, for the Latin; II. 158, for theold English translation.--Forst. Voy. and Disc. 147.

INTRODUCTION.

Oderic of Portenau, a minorite friar, travelled into theeastern countries in the year 1318, accompanied by several othermonks, and penetrated as far as China. After his return, hedictated, in 1330, the account of what he had seen during hisjourney to friar William de Solona, or Solangna, at Padua, butwithout order or arrangement, just as it occurred to his memory.This traveller has been named by different editors, Oderic,Oderisius, and Oldericus de Foro Julii, de Udina, Utinensis, orde Porto Vahonis, or rather Nahonis. Porto-Nahonis, or Portenau,is the Mutatio ad nonum, a station or stage which ismentioned in the Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum, or description ofthe various routes to Jerusalem, a work compiled for the use ofpilgrims; and its name is apparently derived from the Kymerianlanguage, apparently a Celtic dialect, in which portsignifies a stage, station, or resting-place, and nav ornaou signifies nine; Port-nav, Latinized intoPortus naonis, and Frenchified into Portenau, implies, therefore,the ninth station, and is at present named Pordanone in theFriul. The account of his travels, together with his life, are tobe found: in Bolandi Actis Sanctorum, 14to Januarii; inwhich he is honoured with the title of Saint. Oderic died atUdina in 1331. In 1737, Basilio Asquini, an Italian Barnabite ofUdina, published La Vita e Viaggi del Beato Qderico daUdihe, probably an Italian translation from the Latin ofBolandi. The account of these travels in the collection ofHakluyt, is called "The Journal of Friar Odericus, concerning thestrange things which he sawe among the Tartars of the East;" andwas probably transcribed and translated from Bolandi, in whichthese travels are entitled De mirabilibus Mundi, or theWonders of the World. They have very much the air of an ignorantcompilation, fabricated in the name of Oderic, perhaps upon someslight foundation, and stuffed with ill-assorted stories anddescriptions from Marco Polo, and other, writers, interspersedwith a few ridiculous miracles, for the honour or disgrace of theminorite order. Mr Pinkerton asserts, that Oderic was notcanonized until 1753. But the Acts of the Saints is a publicationof considerable antiquity, and he is called Beatus in thework of Asquini, already mentioned as having been published in1787.

SECTION I.

The Commencement of the Travels of Oderic.

Many things are related by various authors, concerning thecustoms, fashions, and conditions of this world: Yet, as I, friarOderic of Portenau in the Friul, have travelled among the remotenations of the unbelievers, where I saw and heard many great andwonderful things, I have thought fit to relate all these thingstruly. Having crossed over the great sea[1] from Pera, close byConstantinople, I came to Trebizond, in the country called Pontusby the ancients. This land is commodiously situated as a mediumof intercourse for the Persians and Medes, and other nationsbeyond the Great Sea, with Constantinople, and the countries ofthe west. In this island I beheld a strange spectacle with greatdelight; a man, who led about with him more than 4000 partridges.This person walked on the ground, while his partridges flew abouthim in the air, and they followed him wherever he went; and theywere so tame, that when he lay down to rest, they all cameflocking about him, like so many chickens. From a certain castlecalled Zauena, three days journey from Trebizond, he led hispartridges in this manner to the palace of the emperor in thatcity. And when the servants of the emperor had taken such anumber of the partridges as they thought proper, he led back therest in the same manner, to the place from whence he came.

[1] Perhaps the sea of Marmora; or it may indicatethe Euxine or Black Sea.--E.

From this city of Trebizond, where the body of St Athanasiusis preserved over one of the gates, I journeyed into the GreaterArmenia, to a city named Azaron, which was rich and flourishingin former times, but the Tartars have nearly laid it entirelywaste; yet it still has abundance of bread and flesh, andvictuals of all sorts, excepting wine and fruits. This city isremarkably cold, and is said to be situated on a higher elevationthat any other city of the world. It has abundance of excellentwater, which seems to originate from the great riverEuphrates[2], which is only at the distance of a days journey.Azaron stands in the direct road between Trebizond and Tauris. Injourneying farther on, I came to a mountain named Sobissacalo;and we passed by the very mountain of Ararat, on which the ark ofNoah is said to have rested. I was very desirous to have gone tothe top of that mountain, but the company with which I travelledwould not wait for me; and the people of the country allege thatno one was ever able to ascend to its top, because, say they, itis contrary to the will of God. Continuing our journey, we cameto Tauris[3], a great and royal city anciently called Susa, whichis reckoned the chief city in the world for trade andmerchandize; for every article whatever, both of merchandize andprovision, is to be had there, in the greatest abundance, Taurisis most conveniently situated, and to it may all the nations ofthe earth, almost, resort for trade. The Christians in thoseparts report, that the emperor of Persia derives more tributefrom this city alone than the king of France receives from thewhole of his dominions. Near this city there is a hill of salt,from whence every one may take as much as he pleases, withoutpaying any thing whatever to any person. Many Christians from allparts of the world are to be found in this place, over whom theSaracens have the supreme authority.

[2] The holy traveller ought rather to have said,that the springs or rivulet near Azaron flowed into theEuphrates. Azaron is obviously Erzerum, on or near one of thehigher branches of the Frat or Euphrates.--E.

[3] Tebriz in Persia.--E.

From Tauris I travelled to the city called Soldania[4], wherethe Persian emperor resides during the summer; but in winter hechanges his residence to another city upon the sea of Baku[5].Soldania is a large city, but very cold, from its situation inthe mountains, and has considerable trade, and abundance of goodwater. From thence I set out with a caravan of merchants, for theUpper India, and in our way, after many days journey, we came toCassan or Casbin[6], the noble and renowned city of the threewise men, which abounds in bread and wine, and many other goodthings, but the Tartars have nearly destroyed it. From this cityto Jerusalem, to which the three wise men we're led by miracle,the distance is fifty days journey. For the sake of brevity Iomit many wonderful things which I saw in this city. Going fromthence, we came to the city of Geste[7], whence the sea of sand,a most wonderful and dangerous track, is distant only one daysjourney. In the city of Yezd there is abundance of all kinds ofvictuals, especially of figs, grapes, and raisins, which arethere more plentiful, in my opinion, than in any other part ofthe world. It is one of the principal cities in all Persia, andits Saracen inhabitants allege that no Christian can live thereabove a year. Continuing our journey forwards for many days, Icame to a city named Comum[8], which was a great city in oldtimes, near fifty miles in circumference, and often did muchdamage to the Romans. In this place there are stately palaces,now destitute of inhabitants, yet it hath abundance ofprovisions. Travelling from thence through many countries, I cameat length into the land of Job, named Us[9], which borders on thenorth of Chaldea. This land is full of all kinds of provisions,and manna is here found in great abundance. Four partridges aresold here for less than an Italian groat; and the mountains haveexcellent pastures for cattle. In this country the men card andspin, and not the women; and the old men are very comely.

[4] Sultania or Sultanie.--E.

[5] The Caspian; so called in this place, from Bakuor Baccou, a city on its banks, in the province ofShirvan.--E.

[6] Oderic must have made a mistake here, as Casbinis not above seventy or eighty miles from Sultanie, and thejourney of the caravans between these cities, could not haveexceeded four or five days.--E.

[7] Yezd, about 500 miles east fromIspahan.--E.

[8] This is obviously the city of Kom or Koom, above400 miles to the north-west of Yezd, and much nearer Sultanie.Our traveller, therefore, must either have strangely forgottenhis route or he came back again from Yezd, instead of journeyingforwards.--E.

[9] Khus or Khosistan, the south-western province ofPersia.--E.

SECTION II

Of the Manners of the Chaldeans, and concerningIndia.

From thence I travelled into Chaldea, which is a greatkingdom, having a language peculiar to itself, and I passedbeside the Tower of Babel. The men of this country have theirhair nicely braided and trimmed, like the women of Italy, wearingturbans richly ornamented with gold and pearls, and are a finelooking people: but the women are ugly and deformed, and are cladin coarse shifts, only reaching to their knees, with long sleeveshanging down to the ground, and breeches or trowsers whichlikewise reach the ground, but their feet are bare. They wear nohead-dresses, and their hair hangs neglected and dishevelledabout their ears. There are many other strange things to be seenin this country.

From thence I travelled into the lower India, which wasoverrun and laid waste by the Tartars[1]. In this country thepeople subsist chiefly on dates, forty-two pound weight of whichmay be purchased for less than a Venetian groat. Travelling onfor many days, I arrived at Ormus on the main ocean, which is awell fortified city, having great store of merchandize andtreasure. The heat of this country is excessive, and constrainsthe people to make use of extraordinary expedients to preservetheir lives[2]. In this place, their ships or barks are calledjase, the planks of which are sewed together with hemp.Embarking in one of these vessels, in which I could find no ironwhatever, I arrived in twenty-eight days sail at Thana[3], inwhich place four of our friars suffered martyrdom for theChristian faith. This country is well situated for trade, and hasabundance of bread and wine, and of all other articles necessaryfor the food of man. The kingdom in ancient times was very largeand populous, and was under the dominion of King Porus, whofought a great battle with Alexander the Macedonian conqueror.The inhabitants are idolaters, worshipping the fire, and likewisepaying divine honours to serpents, and even to trees. TheSaracens have conquered the whole of this land, and arethemselves under subjection to king Daldili[4]. In this countrythere are great numbers of black lions; apes and monkies are alsovery numerous, and their bats are as large as our pigeons. Theyhave rats also, as large as the dogs in Italy, which are huntedby means of dogs, as cats are unable to cope with them. In thiscountry every one has a bundle of great boughs of trees, as largeas a pillar, standing in a pot of water before the door; andthere are many other strange and wonderful novelties, a relationof which would be exceedingly delightful.

[1] By lower India, our author seems here to indicatethe southern provinces of Persia.--E.

[2] Tantus est calor, quod virilia hominum exeuntcorpus, et descendant usque at mediam tibiarum: ideo faciuntunctionum, et ungunt illa, et in, quibusdam sacculis ponunt circase cingentes, et aliter morerentur.

[3] This place seems to have been Tatta, in the Deltaof the Indus.--E.

[4] This unknown king, rex Daldili, is probably anerror in translating from the Venetian or Friul dialect of Odericinto Monkish Latin, and may have been originally Il Re dalDeli, or the King of Delhi.--E.

SECTION III.

Of the Martyrdom of the Friars[l].

[1] The whole of this and the following section isomitted in the old English of Hakluyt, and is here translatedfrom the Latin.--E.

Four of our friars, Tolentinus de Marchia, James of Padua,Demetrius, a lay brother, and Peter de Senis, suffered martyrdomin the city of Thana. These friars had engaged for their passageat Ormus to Polumbrum, but were forcibly carried to Thana, wherethere are fifteen houses of Christians, schismatics of theNestorian communion, and on their arrival they were hospitablyentertained in one of these houses. A strife happened to takeplace between the man of that house and his wife, in which theman beat his wife severely. She complained to the kadi, whointerrogated her how she could prove her assertion. On which sheanswered that there were four priests of the Franks who werepresent, and could attest the bad usage she had received. On thisa person of Alexandria, who was present, requested of the kadithat these men might be sent for, since they were learned men,versant in the scriptures, and it would be right to dispute withthem concerning the faith. Our friars were accordingly sent for,and, leaving Peter to take charge of their goods, the other threewent to the kadi; who began to dispute with them concerning ourfaith, saying, "That Christ was a mere man, and not God." Butfriar Thomas[2] shewed evidently, both from reason and byexamples drawn from Scripture, that Christ was really God andman, and so confounded the kadi and the other infidels, that theywere unable to produce any rational arguments in contradiction tohim. On this some one exclaimed, "And what do you say concerningMahomet?" To this friar Thomas replied; "Since I have proved toyou that Christ is really God and man, who hath given the law tomankind, and since Mahomet set himself contrary thereto, andtaught an opposite law, if ye are wise, you may well know whatought to be concluded respecting him." But the kadi and the otherSaracens insisted that he should declare his own opinionconcerning Mahomet. "You may all see," said he, "what must be myopinion; and as you insist that I should speak out plainly, Imust declare that your Mahomet is the son of perdition, and is inhell with his father the devil. And not him only, but all whohave held his law, which is entirely abominable and false,contrary to GOD, and adverse to the salvation of souls." Onhearing this, the Saracens cried out, "Let him die! let him die!who hath thus blasphemed against the prophet."

[2] Probably he who is named aboveTolentinus.--E.

Then they seized upon the friars, and exposed them to theburning sun, that they might suffer a severe death by the adustheat of the suns rays: For such is the excessive heat of the sunin that place, that any person who remains exposed to its directinfluence, during the time necessary to say the mass, is sure todie. But the friars remained hale and joyful, from the third tothe ninth hour of the day, praising and glorifying the Lord. TheSaracens, astonished at this, came to the friars, saying, "Weintend to make a large fire, and to throw you therein; and ifyour faith is true, as you say, the fire will not be able to burnyou; but if you are burnt, it will plainly appear that your faithis false." To this the friars answered, that they were ready toendure chains and imprisonment, and even the fire, and all othertorments for the faith; but should the fire consume them it wasnot to be inferred that it did so on account of their faith, butas a punishment for their sins: declaring that their faith wasmost true and perfect, and the only one by which the souls of mencould possibly be saved. While they thus determined upon burningthe friars, the report of this affair spread over the whole city,and all the people of both sexes, young and old, flocked tobehold the spectacle. The friars were accordingly led to the mostpublic square of the city, where a great fire was lighted up,into which friar Thomas endeavoured to throw himself; but aSaracen held him back, saying: "You shall not do so, old man, asyou may have some spell or contrivance about you, for preventingthe fire from hurting you, and you must allow another of yourpeople to go into the fire." Then four of the Saracens seizedupon friar James, intending to have thrown him into the fire, buthe requested permission to walk in of his own accord, to shew hisdevotion to the faith. This, however, they refused, and threw himin headlong. The fire was so large and fierce that he could notbe seen; yet his voice was heard from the midst of the flames,calling upon the name of the Glorious Virgin. When the fire wastotally consumed, friar James was seen standing on the embers,unhurt and joyful, with his hands raised to heaven in form of thecross, and himself praising and glorifying GOD, who had thusmanifested the greatness of his faith; and nothing whatever abouthis person, not even his clothes or his hair, was found in theslightest degree injured by the fire. Upon this, all the peoplebegan to cry aloud, "They are holy! they are holy! it is sinfulto do them any injury, for we see now that their faith is goodand holy." To this the kadi objected, saying that he was notholy, notwithstanding he remained unhurt amid the fire; but thathis tunic, being fabricated from the wool of the land of Habraa,had protected him: That he ought therefore to be thrown nakedinto the fire, and they should then see whether or not he wouldbe consumed.

After this, the wicked Saracens, by direction of the kadi,made a fire twice as large as the former; and, having strippedJames quite naked, they washed his body, and anointed himabundantly with oil, besides pouring a great quantity of oil uponthe fa*ggots which composed the fire; and when the fire was fullykindled, they threw friar James into the midst. Friars Thomas andDemetrius, retiring from among the people, remained on theirknees praying to GOD, with many tears. Friar James, however, camea second time unhurt from the fire, and the people again criedout that it was sinful to injure these holy men. Upon this theMelich, or governor of the city, called friar James to hispresence, and causing him to put on his garments, said to thefriars, "We see, brothers, that by the Grace of God ye havesuffered no harm from us: wherefore we are convinced that ye areholy men, and that your faith is good and true; we advise you totake yourselves away out of this land as quickly as possible, asthe kadi will do his utmost to destroy you, because you haveconfounded his arguments". At this time, likewise, the peoplewere full of astonishment and admiration of what they had seen,and were so filled with wonder at the miracle, that they knew notwhat to believe, or how to conduct themselves. The melich orderedthe three friars to be carried across a small arm of the sea,into a village at a moderate distance from the city, where heordered them to be lodged in the house of an idolater.

Afterwards the kadi went to the melich, and represented to himthat the law of Mahomet would be overthrown if these people wereallowed to live. He observed farther, that, by the precepts ofMahomet in the alcoran, it was declared, that any one who slew aChristian, acquired as much merit by that action as by thepilgrimage to Mecca. Then said the melich unto him, "Go thy way,and do what thou wilt." Whereupon the kadi took four armed men,whom he directed to go and slay the friars. These men crossedover the water while it was night, but were then unable to findthe friars. In the meantime, the melich caused all the Christiansin the city to be taken up and thrown into prison. In the middleof the night, the three friars rose up to say matins, and beingthen discovered by the four armed Saracens, they were dragged outof the village to a place beneath a certain tree, where they thusaddressed our friars: "Know ye that we are ordered by the kadiand the melich to slay you, which we are very unwilling to do, asyou are good and holy men; but we dare not refuse, as we and ourwives and children would be put to death." Then answered thefriars, "Do ye even as you have been commanded, that by atemporal death we may gain eternal life; since, for the love ofour Lord Jesus Christ, who was crucified and died for us, and inhonour of our faith in his holy gospel, we are prepared willinglyto suffer every kind of torment, and even death itself." AChristian man, who had joined company with the friars, reasonedmuch with the four armed Saracens, declaring, if he had a sword,he would either defend these holy men from death, or would diealong with them. Then the armed men caused the friars to take offtheir garments, and friar Thomas, on his knees, and with his armsfolded in form of the cross, had his head smitten off. FriarJames had his head divided to the eyes by the first blow, and bya second, his head was severed from his body. They wounded friarDemetrius at first in the breast, and then cut off his head. Inthe moment of the martyrdom of these holy men, the moon shone outwith unusual splendour, and the night became so exceedinglylight, that all admired greatly: After which, it suddenly becameexcessively dark, with great thunder and lightning, and violentcoruscations, so that all expected to be destroyed; and the ship,which ought to have carried away the friars, was sunk, with allon board, so that no tidings of it were ever heardafterwards.

In the morning, the kadi sent to take possession of the goodsbelonging to the friars, and then friar Peter de Senlis, who hadbeen left in charge of the goods, was found, and carried beforethe kadi; who, together with the other Saracens, promised himgreat things, if he would renounce the Christian faith, andconform to the law of Mahomet. But friar Peter scorned all theiroffers, and derided them: Whereupon they inflicted every speciesof torment upon him, from morning until mid-day, which he borewith patience and constancy in the faith, continually praisingGod and holding out the belief in Mahomet to scorn and contempt.The Saracens then hung him up on a tree; and, seeing that he borethis unhurt from the ninth hour till evening, they cut him intwo. In the morning after, when they came to look for his body,no part of it was to be found. It was afterwards revealed to aperson worthy of credit, that God had hidden his body for aseason, until he should be pleased to manifest the bodies of hissaints, and should shew the souls of the saints, rejoicingtogether with GOD and his angels and the saints, in bliss.

On the night following the martyrdom of these holy friars,they appeared to the melich in a vision, glorious and resplendentlike the noon-day sun, each holding a sword on high, in amenacing posture, as if about to stab or cut him in pieces. Inhorror at the sight, he cried out aloud, to the great terror ofhis family, to whom he said, that these rabbis of the Franks,whom he had ordered to be slain, had come upon him with swords toslay him. The melich likewise sent for the kadi, to whom hecommunicated his vision, seeking advice and consolation, as hefeared to be slain by the martyrs. And the kadi advised him togive large alms to their brethren, if he would escape from thehands of those whom he had slain. Then the melich sent for theChristians, whom he had thrown into prison, from whom he beggedforgiveness for what he had done, promising henceforwards to betheir companion and brother; and he ordained, that if any personin future should injure a Christian, he should suffer death; andsending away the Christians unhurt, each man to his home, themelich caused four mosques or chapels to be built in honour ofthe four martyrs, and appointed Saracen priests to officiate inthem. When the Emperor Dodsi[3] heard of the slaughter of thefour friars, he ordered the melich to be brought bound beforehim, and questioned him why he had cruelly ordered these men tobe slain. The melich endeavoured to justify himself, byrepresenting that they had exerted themselves to subvert the lawsof Mahomet, against whom they had spoken blasphemously. Theemperor thus addressed him; "O! most cruel dog! when you had seenhow the Almighty God had twice delivered them from the flames,how dared you thus cruelly to put them to death?" And the emperorordered the melich, and all his family, to be cut in two;sentencing him to the same death which he had inflicted on theholy friars. On these things coming to the knowledge of the kadi,he fled out of the land, and even quitted the dominions of theemperor, and so escaped the punishment he had so justlymerited.

[3] Probably the same called, at the close of theformer sections, Daldili, and there conjecturally explained asthe King of Delhi.--E.

SECTION IV.

Of the Miracles performed by the four Martyrs.

It is not the custom in that country to commit the bodies oftheir dead to the grave, but they are exposed in the fields, thatthey may be consumed by the heat of the sun. But after the bodiesof these martyrs had remained fourteen days exposed to the sun,they remained as fresh and uncorrupted as on the day of theirmartyrdom. On this being seen by the Christians who inhabited theland, they buried the bodies with great reverence. When I,Oderic, heard of the circ*mstances attending the death of thesemartyrs, I went to the place and dug up their bodies; and havingcollected all their bodies into beautiful towallias, Icarried them with me into upper India to a certain place,assisted by a companion and a servant. While we were on our way,we rested in the house of a hospitable person, and placing thebones at my head, I went to sleep. And while I was asleep, thehouse was suddenly set on fire by the Saracens, that I might beburnt therein. My companion and servant made their escape,leaving me and the bones in the burning house. Seeing the fireabove and all around me, I took up the bones, and withdrew, withthem into one of the angles of the house; whence I saw all theother three corners on fire, while I remained safe along with thebones. So long as I remained there with the bones, the fire keptit*elf above my head, like lucid air; but the moment that I wentout with the bones, the whole of that place where I had stood wasenveloped in the flames, and many other surrounding buildingswere likewise burnt to the ground.

Another miracle happened as I was going by sea with the bonesto the city of Polumbrum, where, pepper grows in great abundance,when the wind totally failed us. On this occasion, the idolatersbegan to pray to their gods for a favourable wind; but which theywere unable to attain. Then the Saracens industriously made theirinvocations and adorations, to as little purpose. After this, Iand my companion were ordered to pray to our God, and thecommander of the ship said to me in the Armenian language, whichthe rest of the people on board did not understand, that unlesswe could procure a favourable wind from our God, he would throwboth us and the bones into the sea. Then I and my companion wentto our prayers, and we vowed to celebrate many masses in honourof the Holy Virgin, if she would vouchsafe us a wind. But as thetime passed on, and no wind came, I gave one of the bones to ourservant, whom I ordered to go to the head of the ship, and castthe bone into the sea; which he had no sooner done, than afavourable gale sprung up, which, never again failed us till wehad arrived at our destined port in safety, owing entirely to themerit of these holy martyrs. We then embarked in another ship, onpurpose to sail to the higher India; and we arrived at a certaincity named Carchan, in which there are two houses of the brethrenof our order, and we intended to have deposited these holy relicsin that place. There were in that ship above 700 merchants andothers; and the idolaters have a custom, that always before theygo into port, they search the whole ship carefully for, the bonesof dead animals, which they throw into the sea, thinking by thatmeans the more readily to reach the harbour, and to escape thedanger of death. But though they searched frequently andcarefully, and even often touched the bones, of the martyrs,their, eyes were always deluded, so that they could not perceivethem: And thus we brought them reverently to the dwelling of ourbrethren, where they rest in peace, and where God continuallyworks miracles by their means among the idolaters. When any onelabours under heavy sickness, they go to the place where thebodies of the martyrs are deposited, and taking some of theearth, it is mixed among water, which is drank by the diseasedpersons, who are thus freed from their infirmities.

SECTION V.

Of the places where Pepper grows, and in what Manner it isprocured.

Pepper grows in the kingdom of Minibar (Malabar), where it ismore plentiful than in any other part of the world, being foundabundantly in that country, in a forest which extends foreighteen days journey in circuit. In the wood, or forest, thereare two cities, named Flandrina and Cynci lim[1]. Flandrina isinhabited both by Jews and Christians, who are often engaged inquarrels, and even in war, in which the Christians are alwaysvictorious. In this forest which we have mentioned, the plantwhich produces the pepper is planted near the large trees, as weplant vines in Italy. It grows with numerous leaves, like our potherbs, and climbs up the trees, producing the pepper in clusterslike our grapes. When these are ripe, they are of a green colour,and, being gathered, are laid in the sun to dry, after which theyare put into earthen vessels for sale. In this forest there aremany rivers, having great numbers of crocodiles and serpents; andthe natives make large fires of straw and other dry fuel, at theproper season for gathering the pepper, that they may do sowithout danger from these noxious animals. At one end of thisforest the city of Polumbrum is situated, which abounds in allkinds of merchandize.

[1] The names of these cities or towns, in the peppercountry of Malabar, which is called Minibar in the text, are sothoroughly corrupted, that no conjectural criticism can discoverthem in our modern maps. Hakluyt on the margin, correctsFlandrina, by an equally unknown, Alandrina. They may possiblyrefer to places now fallen into ruin, in the kingdom or provinceof Travancore, which has always been a great mart ofpepper.--E.

The inhabitants of that country worship a living ox as theirgod, which is made to labour in husbandry for six years, and inhis seventh year, he is consecrated as holy, and is no moreallowed to work. With this strange animal god, they use thefollowing strange ceremony: Every morning they take two basons ofsilver or gold, in one of which they collect the urine of theholy ox, and his dung in the other; and the devotees wash theirfaces, eyes, and all their five senses in the urine; and anointtheir eyes, cheeks, and breasts with the dung; after which, theyconsider themselves sanctified for the whole of that day; andeven the king and queen of the country use this absurdsuperstition. They worship an idol also, which resembles a manfrom the navel upwards, all below being in the likeness of an ox;and this idol delivers oracles, as they believe, and sometimesrequires the sacrifice of forty virgins. On this account, thepeople consecrate their sons and daughters to the idols, even aswe Christians dedicate our sons and daughters to some particularorder of religion, or to some of the saints in Heaven. They evensacrifice their sons and daughters, so that many are put to deathin honour of this accursed idol; and they commit many otherabominable and beastly actions; and I saw many other strangethings among them which I refrain from relating[2].

[2] Friar Oderic appears only to have observed thesuperstitions in the southern part of India very superficially,if at all; and as many opportunities will occur in the course ofthis collection, for explaining the strange beliefs, customs, andceremonies of the braminical worship, it has not been thoughtnecessary to discuss these in notes on the presentoccasion.--E.

This nation has another most abominable custom; that when aman dies, his body is burned to ashes, and his living wife isburned along with him, that she may assist her husband in histrade or husbandry in the next world. Yet, if she have childrenby her husband, she may remain alive with them, if so inclined,without shame or reproach; yet most of them prefer to be burntwith the bodies of their husbands. But husbands are notinfluenced by any similar law, as when they lose their wives theymay marry again. There are some other strange customs among thepeople of this country; insomuch, that the women drink wine,which the men do not; and the women shave their eyebrows, andeyelids, and their beards, besides many other filthy customs,contrary to the true decorum of the sex. From that country Itravelled ten days journey to another kingdom called Moabar[3],in which there are many cities; and in a certain church of thatcountry, the body of St Thomas the apostle lies buried; whichchurch is full of idols, and round about it there are fifteenhouses inhabited by Nestorian priests, who are bad Christians,and false schismatics.

[3] Hakluyt has explained Moabar on the margin byMaliassour or Meliassour. The country here indicated is obviouslythe Carnatic, or kingdom of Arcot of modern times, from thecirc*mstance of containing the shrine of St Thomas. The idolsmentioned by Oderic, as filling the church of St Thomas, wereprobably Nestorian images; not sanctioned by the Romanritual.--E.

SECTION VI.

Of a Strange Idol, and of certain Customs andCeremonies.

In the kingdom of Moabar there is a wonderful idol in theshape of a man, all of pure and polished gold, as large as ourimage of St Christopher; and there hangs about its neck a stringof most rich and precious stones, some of which are singly morevaluable than the riches of an entire kingdom. The whole house,in which this idol is preserved, is all of beaten gold, even theroof, the pavement, and the lining of the walls, both within andwithout[1]. The Indians go on pilgrimages to this idol, just aswe do to the image of St Peter; some having halters round theirnecks, some with their hands bound behind their backs, and otherswith knives sticking in various parts of their legs and arms; andif the flesh of their wounded limbs should corrupt, owing tothese wounds, they believe that their god is well pleased withthem, and ever after esteem the diseased limbs as sacred. Nearthis great idol temple, there is an artificial lake of water inan open place, into which the pilgrims and devotees cast gold andsilver, and precious stones, in honour of the idol, and as a fundfor repairing the temple; and when any new ornament is to bemade, or any repairs are required, the priests take what iswanted from the oblations that are thrown into this lake.

[1] More recent and more accurate travellers haveinformed us, that this profusion of gold, on the idols andtemples of the Buddists, especially, is only richgilding.--E.

At each annual festival of this idol, the king and queen ofthe country, with all the pilgrims, and the whole multitude ofthe people assemble at the temple; and placing the idol on a richand splendid chariot, they carry it from the temple with songsand all kinds of musical instruments, having a great company ofyoung women, who walk in procession, two and two, singing beforethe idol. Many of the pilgrims throw themselves under the chariotwheels, that they may be crushed to death in honour of their god,and the bodies of these devotees are afterwards burned, and theirashes collected as of holy martyrs. In this manner, above 500persons annually devote themselves to death. Sometimes a mandevotes himself to die in honour of this abominable idol. Onwhich occasion, accompanied by his relations and friends, and bya great company of musicians, he makes a solemn feast; afterwhich, he hangs five sharp knives around his neck, and goes insolemn procession before the idol; where he takes four of theknives successively, with each of which he cuts off a piece ofhis own flesh, which he throws to the idol, saying, that for theworship of his god he thus cuts himself. Then taking the last ofthe knives, he declares aloud that he is going to put himself todeath in honour of the god; on uttering which, he executes hisvile purpose. His body is then burned with great solemnity, andhe is ever after esteemed as a holy person.

The king of this country has vast treasures in gold andsilver, and precious stones, and possesses the largest andfairest pearls that are to be seen in the whole world. Leavingthis country, I travelled fifty days journey to the southward,along the shore of the ocean, when I came to a country calledLamouri[2], in which, owing to the extreme heat, the wholeinhabitants go stark naked, both men and women, and they deridedme for wearing clothes, saying, that Adam and Eve were creatednaked. In this country the women are all common, so that no onehas a wife; and when a child is born, the mother gives it to anyof the men she pleases, who may have been connected with her. Thewhole of the land, likewise, is possessed in common, but everyonehas his own house. Human flesh, if fat, is used as commonly inthat country as beef with us; and though the manners and customsof the people are most abominable, the country is excellent, andabounds in flesh and corn, gold and silver, aloes-wood, andcamphor, and many other precious commodities. Merchants who tradeto this country, usually bring with them fat men, among theirother commodities, which they sell to the natives as we do hogs,and these are immediately slain and devoured.

[2] This seems properly enough corrected on themargin by Hakluyt, by the word Comori, or the country about CapeComorin.--E.

In this region, toward the south, there is an island orkingdom called Symolora[3], where both the men and women markthemselves with a hot iron in twelve different parts of theirfaces[4]; and this nation is continually at war with a certainnaked people in another region. I then went to another islandnamed Java, the coast of which is 3000 miles in circuit; and theking of Java has seven other kings under his supreme dominion.This is thought to be one of the largest islands in the world,and is thoroughly inhabited; having great plenty of cloves,cubebs, and nutmegs, and all other kinds of spices, and greatabundance of provisions of all kinds, except wine. The king ofJava has a large and sumptuous palace, the most lofty of any thatI have seen, with broad and lofty stairs to ascend to the upperapartments, all the steps being alternately of gold andsilver.

[3] Simoltra or Sumatra.--Hakluyt.

[4] Probably alluding to tatooing, which will beexplained in the voyages to the islands of the Pacificocean.--E.

The whole interior walls are lined with plates of beaten gold,on which the images of warriors are placed sculptured in gold,having each a golden coronet richly ornamented with preciousstones. The roof of this palace is of pure gold, and all thelower rooms are paved with alternate square plates of gold andsilver. The great khan, or emperor of Cathay, has had many warswith the king of Java, but has always been vanquished and beatenback.

SECTION VII.

Of certain Trees which produce Meal, Honey, Wine, andPoison.

Near to Java is another country called Panten, orTathalmasin[1], the king of which has many islands under hisdominion. In this country there are trees which produce meal,honey, and wine, and likewise the most deadly poison in theworld; the only remedy for which is human ordure dissolved inwater, which, drank in considerable quantify, acts as acathartic, and expels the poison. These trees are very large;and, when cut down, a quantity of liquor exudes from the trunk,which is received into bags made of leaves, and after exposurefor fifteen days to the sun, it hardens into meal. This is firststeeped in sea water, and is afterwards washed in fresh water,when it becomes a savoury paste, which may either be eaten asbread, or cooked in various ways[2]. I have eaten of this bread,which is fair on the outside, and somewhat brown within. Beyondthis country, the Mare Mortuum, or Dead Sea[3], stretcheswith a continual current far to the south, and whatever fallsinto it is seen no more. In this country there grow canes of anincredible length, as large as trees, even sixty paces or more inheight. There are other canes, called cassan, which spreadover the earth like grass, even to the extent of a mile, sendingup branches from every knot; and in these canes they find certainstones of wonderful virtue, insomuch, that whoever carries one ofthese about him, cannot be wounded by an iron weapon; on whichaccount, most of the men in that country carry such stones alwaysabout them. Many of the people of this country cause one of thearms of their children to be cut open when young, putting one ofthese stones into the wound, which they heal up by means of thepowder of a certain fish, with the name of which I amunacquainted. And through the virtue of these wonderful stones,the natives are generally victorious in their wars, both by seaand land. There is a stratagem, however, which their enemiesoften successfully use against them, to counteract the power ofthese stones. Providing themselves with iron or steel armour, todefend them from the arrows of these people, they use woodenstakes, pointed like weapons of iron, and arrows not having ironheads, but infused with poison which they extract from certaintrees, and they thus slay some of their foes, who, trusting tothe virtue of these stones, wear no defensive armour. From thecanes formerly mentioned, named cassan, they build themselvessmall houses, and manufacture sails for their ships, and manyother things are made from them. From thence, after many daystravel, I came to another kingdom, called Campa[4], which is avery rich and beautiful kingdom, abounding in all kinds ofprovisions. The king who reigned at the time of my being there,had so many wives and concubines, that he had three hundred sonsand daughters. He had likewise 10,004[5] tame elephants, whichwere pastured in droves as we feed flocks and herds.

[1] Hakluyt endeavours to explain this on the marginby Malasmi. It is possible the river Banjar, and the port ofMasseen, otherwise called Bendermassin, or Banjar-massin, in thegreat island of Borneo, may be here indicated. Panten, Petan, orperhaps Bentam, is perhaps a small woody island mentioned byMarco Polo, near great Java or Borneo. The names of places,however, in these early travellers, have been so confounded byignorant transcribers as often to defy all criticism.--E.

[2] This seems an ill-collected account ofSago.--E.

[3] The Pacific Ocean, the navigation of which wasthen so much unknown, that those who ventured to navigate itnever returned.--E.

[4] Probably Siampa, called likewise Ciampa, andTsiompa.--E.

[5] In the Latin, this number is decies millesies etquatuor, which may even be read 14,000; certainly a vastexaggeration either way.--E.

SECTION VIII.

Of vast multitudes of Fish, which throw themselves on thedry Land.

The following most wonderful circ*mstance is to be observed inthis country of Siampa. All the kinds of fishes which frequentthose seas, swim towards the shore at certain times in suchabundance, that nothing can be seen for a great way but the backsof fishes. The fish throw themselves upon the shore, and for thespace of three days allow the people to take up as many of themas they please. At the end of these three days this shoal returnsagain to sea, and a different kind comes to the shore in the samemanner, and remains for a similar period. And in the same way,all other kinds of fish in these seas come to the shore insuccession, each kind by itself. This strange phenomenon happensonce every year, and the natives pretend that the fishes aretaught by nature to do this, in token of homage to their emperor.I saw many other strange things in this country, which would beincredible to any one who had not seen them; and among these, Imay mention that they have tortoises as large as ovens. In thiscountry, the bodies of their dead are burned, and the livingwives are burned along with their dead husbands, as has beenalready mentioned when describing the customs of the city ofPolumbrum; and they are believed by this means to accompany theirhusbands into the other world.

Travelling from this country to the southward, along the coastof the ocean, I passed through many countries and islands, one ofwhich is called Moumoran[1], and is 2000 miles in circumference.The people of this country, both men and women, go naked, excepta small cloth before the middle of their bodies. They have dogsfaces, and worship an ox as their god, and all of them wear theimage of an ox in gold or silver on their foreheads. The men arevery tall and strong, and when they go to battle, they carrytargets of iron or steel, large enough to cover and protect theirwhole bodies. All the prisoners whom they take in war, unlessthey can ransom themselves with money, are eaten; but those whoare able to pay ransom are set free. The king of this countrywears a string of 300 large and fair pearls about his neck, whichhe employs as a rosary for counting his prayers; and says everyday as many prayers to his god. He wears also on his finger amarvellously large and brilliant stone, of a span long, whichresembles a flame of fire, so that no one dare approach him, andit is said to be the most valuable precious stone in all theworld. The great Tartar emperor of Cathay, hath often used everyendeavour to procure this wonderful jewel, but has never beenable to prevail, either by force, policy, or money.

[1] It is impossible even to conjecture what islandis here meant; but as Ceylon follows next in succession, it maypossibly refer to Sumatra, though that island appears to havebeen mentioned already, under the name ofSymolora--E.

SECTION IX.

Of the Island of Ceylon, and of the Mountain where Adammourned the Death of Abel.

From thence I passed another island named Sylan, or Ceylon,which is 2000 miles in circuit, in which there are infinitemultitudes of serpents, great numbers of lions, bears, and allkinds of ravenous beasts, and a great many of elephants. In thisisland there is a great mountain, on which the inhabitantspretend that Adam mourned for the death of his son Abel, during500 years. On the top of this mountain there is a most beautifulplain, in which is a small lake always full of water, which theinhabitants allege to have proceeded from the tears of Adam andEve; but this I proved to be false, as I saw the water to flowout of the lake. This lake is full of horse-leeches, and numbersof precious stones are to be found on its bottom, which the kingof the island, instead of appropriating to his own use, allowscertain poor people to dive for once or twice a-year, for theirown profit, that they may pray for blessings upon his soul. Onthis occasion they smear their bodies with lemon juice, whichprevents the leeches from hurting them while they are in thewater. The water from this lake runs into the sea, at which placethe inhabitants dig on the shore, at low water, for rubies,diamonds, pearls, and other precious stones, which are found insuch abundance, that the king of this island is believed topossess more precious stones than any other monarch in the world.There are wild beasts and birds of all kinds in this island ingreat numbers; and I was informed by the natives, that thesebeasts never attack or do harm to strangers, but only kill theindigenous inhabitants. I saw in this island certain birds, aslarge as our geese, having two heads, and other wonderful thingsI do not here write of.

Still farther to the south, I came to a certain island, calledBodin[1], which name signifies unclean; and this island isinhabited by a most wicked people, who devour raw flesh, andcommit all manner of wickedness and abominable uncleanness to anincredible extent; insomuch, that they kill and eat each other,the father eating his son, the son his father, the husband hiswife, and the wife her husband. If any man be sick, the son goesto the soothsayer, or prognosticating priest, requesting him toinquire of his god, whether or not his father is to recover. Thenboth go to an idol of gold or silver, which they thus address:"We adore thee as our lord and god, and we beseech thee to informus, whether such a man is to die or to recover from his presentinfirmity." Then the devil returns an answer from the idol, andif he says the man is to recover, the son returns to the house ofhis father, and ministers to him in all things necessary, untilhe regain his former health; but if the response is that the manis to die, the priest then goes to him, and putting a cloth intohis mouth, immediately strangles him. After this the dead body iscut in pieces, and all the friends and relations are invited tofeast upon this horrible banquet, which is accompanied with musicand all manner of mirth; but the bones are solemnly buried. On myblaming this abominable practice, they alleged, as its reason andexcuse, that it was done to prevent the worms from devouring theflesh, which would occasion great torments to his soul; and all Icould say was quite insufficient to convince them of their error.There are many other novel and strange things in this country, towhich no one would give credit, who had not seen them with hisown eyes; yet, I declare before God, that I assert nothing ofwhich I am not as sure as a man may be of any thing. I have beeninformed by several credible persons, that this India contains4400 islands, most of which are well inhabited, among which thereare sixty-four crowned kings.

[1] Explained on the margin by Hakluyt, orDadin, which is equally inexplicable.--E.

SECTION X.

Of Upper India, and the Province of Mancy[1].

[1] Otherwise Mangi, or SouthernChina.--E.

After sailing for many days on the ocean towards the east, Iarrived at the great province of Mancy, or Mangi, which is calledIndia by the Latins; and I was informed by Christians, Saracens,and idolaters, and by many persons in office under the greatkhan, that this country contains more than 2000 great cities, andthat it abounds in all manner of provisions, as bread, wine,rice, flesh, and fish. All the men of this country are artificersor merchants, and so long as they are able to help themselves bythe labour of their hands, they never think to beg alms, howevergreat may be their poverty. The men of this country are fair andof a comely appearance, yet somewhat pale, having a small part oftheir heads shaven; but their women are the most beautiful of anyunder the sun. The first city that I came to belonging to thiscountry is called Ceuskalon[2], which is a days journey from thesea, standing on a river, which at its mouth overflows the land,to the extent of twelve days journey. This city has so prodigiousa number of ships and vessels, as would be quite incredible byany person who had not been an eye-witness. In this city I saw300 pounds of good and new ginger sold for less than a groat.They have the largest and finest geese, and the greatest plentyof them is to be sold, more than in any other part of the world.They are as white as milk, having a bone the size of an egg onthe crown of the head, of a blood-red colour, and a skin or bagunder their throat, which hangs down half a foot or more[3].These birds are exceedingly fat, and are sold at reasonablerates. The ducks and hens of this country are twice the size ofours. There are likewise large and monstrous serpents, which arecaught and eaten by the natives, and are held in such estimationas to be produced at all their feasts. In short, this cityabounds in all kind of provisions.

[2] This place, which on the margin is corrected bythe equally unknown name of Ceuskala, was probably Canton; buthaving endeavoured to explain the distorted names of places inChina, in the travels of Marco Polo, it is unnecessary to resumethe almost impossible task in these much less interesting, andperhaps fabricated travels of Oderic.--E.

[3] Oderic here means pelicans, called alca-trarzi bythe Spaniards. --Hakluyt.

Travelling from thence through many cities, I came at lengthto a city called Caitan or Zaiton[4], in which the minoritefriars have two places of abode, unto which I transported thebones of the dead friars formerly mentioned, who sufferedmartyrdom for the faith of Christ. In this city, which is twiceas long as Bologna, there are abundance of provisions, and itcontains many monasteries of religious persons, who are devotedto the worship of idols. I was in one of these monasteries, whichwas said to contain 3000 religious men, and 11,000 idols, one ofthe smallest of which was as large as our St Christopher. Thesereligious men feed their idols daily, serving up a banquet ofgood things before them, smoking hot, and they affirm that theirgods are refreshed and fed by the steam of the victuals, whichare afterwards carried away, and eaten up by the priests.

[4] Called in p. 404. Carchan.--E.

SECTION XI.

Of the City of f*cko, or Foquien.

Continuing my journey still farther to the east, I came to thecity of Foquien, which is thirty miles in circuit. The poultryhere are very large, and as white as snow, but have wool likesheep instead of feathers. This is a stately and most beautifulcity, and standeth on the sea. Travelling onwards for eighteendays, I passed through many provinces and cities; and in my way,I passed over a certain great mountain, on one side of which allliving creatures were quite black, whereas, on the other side,all were as white as snow; and the inhabitants of the two sidesof the mountain differed exceedingly from each other, in theirmanners and customs. In these parts, all the married women wear alarge tire or cap of horn, like a small barrel, on their heads,as a mark that they have husbands.

Journeying onwards for other eighteen days, I came to a cityon a large river, over which there is a prodigiously greatbridge. The host with whom I lodged in that city, willing toamuse me, carried me along with him to this bridge, taking withhim in his arms certain diving birds bound to poles, and he tieda thread about every one of their necks, lest they might swallowthe fish they were to catch. He carried likewise three largebaskets to the river side. He then loosed his divers from thepoles, on which they went into the water, and in less than anhour, they caught as many fish as filled the three baskets. Minehost then untied the threads from their necks, and sent themagain into the water, where they fed themselves with fish. And,when satisfied, they returned to their master, allowingthemselves to be fastened to the poles as before. I eat of thesefish, and found them very good.

Travelling thence many days, I came to another city namedCanasia[1], which signifies in their language the city of Heaven.I never saw so great a city, for it is an hundred miles incircumference, and every part of it is thoroughly inhabited, yea,many of its houses are ten or even twelve stories high. It hasmany large suburbs, which contain more inhabitants than even thecity itself. There are twelve principal gates; and at thedistance of about eight miles from every one of these there is alarge city, each of them larger, in my opinion, than Venice orPadua. The city of Canasia is situated among waters or lakes,which are always stagnant, without flux or reflux, and it isdefended against the violence of the wind in the same manner asVenice. In this city there are more than 10,002 bridges[2], manyof which I counted and passed over; and on every one of these,there stand certain watchmen, constantly keeping guard for thegreat khan, or emperor of Cathay. The people of the countryinformed me that they have to pay, as tribute to their lord, onebalis for every fire. Now one balis consists of fivepieces of silken paper, which are worth one florin and a half ofour coin. Ten or twelve households are counted as one fire, andonly pay accordingly. All these tributary fires amount toeighty-five tomans, besides four tomans of the Saracens, makingin all eighty-nine tomans; and one toman contains 10,000fires[3]. The residue of the people consist of some Christians,some merchants, and some who travel through the country. Imarvelled how it were possible for such an infinite number ofpeople to live together, and get food; yet there is greatabundance of provisions, such as bread and wine, and othernecessaries, especially hogs flesh.

[1] Cansai, Quinzay, or Quinsay.--Hakluyt.

[2] In the Italian copy, published by Ramusio, thenumber of bridges is extended to 11,000.--Hakluyt.

[3] This enumeration would give 890,000 fires, oralmost ten millions of households; which at four persons to each,would produce an aggregate population of 39 millions of peoplefor Quinsay alone. The tribute, as stated by Oderic, amounts to6,675,000 florins.--E.

SECTION XII.

Of a Monastery, having many different kinds of Animals on acertain Hill.

In this city of Quinsay, four of our friars had converted apowerful man to the Christian faith, in whose house I abode allthe time I remained in that place. This man once addressed me, bythe name of Ara or father, asking me to visit the city.Embarking in a boat, he carried me to a certain monastery, wherehe spoke to one of the priests of his acquaintance, saying, "thisRaban, or religious man of the Francs, coming from the westernparts of the earth, is on his way to Cambalu to pray for the lifeof the great khan, and you must shew him some rare thing, that hemay be able to say on his return to his own country, what strangeand novel sights he has beheld in our city of Quinsay." Then thepriest took two great baskets full of broken victuals, and led meto a small walled inclosure, of which he had the key, the door ofwhich he unlocked, and we went into a pleasant green plot, inwhich stood a small hillock like a steeple, all adorned withfragrant herbs and trees. He then beat upon a cymbal, at thesound of which many animals of various kinds came down, from themount, some like apes, some like cats, others like monkeys, andsome having human faces, which gathered around him to the numberof four thousand, and placed themselves in seemly order. He setdown the broken victuals for them to eat; and when they hadeaten, he rung again upon his cymbal, and they all returned totheir places of abode. Wondering greatly at this strange sight,this man informed me that these creatures were animated by thesouls of departed persons of rank, and that they were fed by himand his brethren out of love for the God that governs the world.He added, that, when a man was noble in this life, his soulentered, after death, into the body of some excellent beast,while the souls of the deceased common rude people, possess thebodies of vile animals. I then endeavoured to refute that grosserror, but my arguments were all in vain, as he could not believethat any soul could exist without a body.

From Quinsay I went to the city of Chilenso, which is fortymiles round, and contains 360 stone bridges, the fairest I eversaw. This place is well inhabited, has a vast number of ships,and abundance of provisions and commodities. From thence I wentto a great river called Thalay, which is seven miles broad wherenarrowest, and it runs through the midst of the land of thePigmies, whose chief city is Kakam, one of the finest of theworld. These Pigmies are only three spans in height, yet theymanufacture larger and better cloths of cotton and silk, than anyother people. Passing that river, I came to the city of Janzu, inwhich there is a house for the friars of our order, and there arealso three churches belonging to the Nestorians. This Janzu is agreat and noble city, having forty-eight tomans of tributaryfires, and abounds in all manner of victuals, flesh, fish, andfowl. The lord of this city has fifty tomans of balis inyearly revenue from salt alone; and as every bali is worth aflorin and a half of our money, one toman is worth 15,000florins, and the salt revenue of this city is 750,000 florins.This lord has been known to forgive 200 tomans of arrears at onetime to his people, or three millions of florins, lest theyshould be reduced to distress. There is a strange fashion in thiscity, when any one inclines to give a banquet to his friends: Hegoes about to certain taverns or cooks shops, informing each ofthe landlords, that such and such of his friends are to comethere for entertainment in his name, and that he will allow acertain sum for the banquet. By this means his friends are betterentertained in divers places, than if all had been collected intoone. Ten miles from the city of Janzu, and at the mouth of theriver Thalay, there is another city named Montu, which has agreater number of ships than I ever saw in any part of the world.All the ships are white as snow, and have banquetting houses inthem; and there are many other rare and wonderful things, that noone would give credit to, unless he were to see them with his owneyes.

SECTION XIII.

Of the city of Cambalu.

Travelling eight days farther, through divers provinces andcities, I came by fresh water to a city called Lencyn, on theriver Karamoran, which pervades the middle of Cathay, and doesmuch injury when it breaks its banks and overflows the land.Passing from thence many days journey to the eastwards, andwithin sight of many different cities, I came to the city ofSumakoto, which abounds more in silk than any city of the earth;insomuch that silk is reckoned scarce and dear, when the price offorty pounds weight amounts to four groats. It likewise aboundsin all kinds of merchandize and provisions. Journeying stilltowards the east past many cities, I arrived at length at thegreat and renowned city of Cambalu, or Cambaleth, which is ofgreat antiquity, and is the capital of Cathay. Being taken by theTartars, they built a new city at the distance of half a mile,which they named Caido, which has twelve gates, each two milesdistant from the other. The space also between the two cities isthoroughly built upon, and inhabited; so that the whole is as onecity, and is forty miles in circuit. In this city the great khanor emperor has his palace, the walls of which are four miles incircuit; and near to the imperial palace there are many otherhouses and palaces of the nobles who belong to the court. Withinthe precincts of the imperial palace, there is a most beautifulmount, all set over with trees, called the Green Mount, having asumptuous palace on the top, in which the khan mostly resides. Onone side of the mount is a great lake, abounding in geese andducks, and all manner of water fowl, and having a mostmagnificent bridge; and the wood upon the mount is stored withall kinds of beasts and land birds. Hence when the khan isinclined to take the diversion of hunting or hawking, he needsnot to quit his palace.

The principal palace in which the khan resides is very large,and contains fourteen pillars of gold, and all the walls are hungwith red skins, which are reckoned the most costly in theworld[1]. In the midst of this palace, there is a cistern twoyards high, all of a precious stone called merdochas,which is wreathed round with gold, having the golden image of aserpent at each corner, as it were furiously menacing with theirheads. This cistern is farther ornamented by a rich net-work ofpearls; and, by means of certain pipes and conduits, itcontinually supplies certain kinds of drink that are used at thecourt of the emperor[2]. Around this there stand many goldenvessels, so that all who choose may drink abundantly. There arelikewise many golden peaco*cks; and when any of the Tartars drinkto the prosperity of their lord, and the guests clap their handsfrom mirth and joy, the golden peaco*cks spread their wings andexpand their trains, and appear to dance. This, I presume, isoccasioned by magic art, or perhaps by means of some secretmachinery below ground.

[1] These red skins, in the Latin of Hakluyt,pelles rubes, are probably the zaphilines pelles, orsables, of other travellers; converted into red skins bysome strange blunder.--E.

[2] This fountain of four drinks, seems copiedfrom honest Rubruquis; but with corrections andamendments.--E.

SECTION XIV.

Of the Magnificence of the Great Khan.

When the great khan sits upon his imperial throne of state,his queen or empress sits upon his left hand; and on another andlower seat two women are seated, who accompany the emperor in theabsence of his spouse; and underneath them all the other ladiesof the imperial family are placed. All the married ladies wearornaments on their heads, shaped like a mans foot, a cubit and ahalf long[1], ornamented with cranes feathers, and richly setwith large oriental pearls. The eldest son and heir apparent ofthe emperor, is seated on the right hand of the throne, and belowhim sit all the nobles of the imperial race. There are likewisefour secretaries, who write down every word spoken by theemperor. The barons and others of the nobility stand all around,with numerous trains of their followers, and all preserve themost profound silence, unless permitted to speak by the emperor;except his jesters and stage-players, nor even they but as theyare ordered. Certain barons are appointed to keep the palacegate, to prevent all who pass from treading on the threshold.

[1] In the plates of La Monarchie Francaise, by PereMontfaucon, the French ladies of the fourteenth century arerepresented as wearing conical caps on their heads, at least onethird of their own height.--E.

When the khan holds a solemn feast, he is attended upon byabout 14,000 barons, who have their heads ornamented by circletsor coronets of gold, and who minister to him in all things; andthey are all richly dressed in cloth of gold, ornamented withprecious stones, the dress and ornaments of each being worth10,000 florins[2]. His court is kept in the most perfect order,the immense multitude of attendants being regularly arrangedunder officers of tens, hundreds, and thousands, so that everyone perfectly knows his own place and performs his duty. I, friarOderic, was personally at Cambalu for three years, and was oftenpresent at the royal banquets; for we of the minorite order havea habitation appointed for us in the emperors court, and areenjoined to go frequently into the presence, that we may bestowour blessing on the emperor. I inquired from some of theattendants at court concerning the numbers in the imperialestablishment, who assured me that, of stage-players, musicians,and such like, there were at least eighteen tomans, and that thekeepers of dogs, beasts, and fowls, were fifteen tomans[3]. Thereare four hundred physicians of the body to the emperor, eight ofwhom are Christians, and one Saracen. The whole of theseattendants are supplied with all manner of apparel, victuals, andnecessaries, from the palace.

[2] One hundred and forty millions of florins, as thevalue of the dresses of the nobles of the imperial court! Itseems that most writers concerning China are apt entirely toforget the power of numbers, in the fervour of theiradmiration.--E.

[3] Odericus, or his Bolandist biographer, seems tohave forgot that thirty-three tomans make 330,000 uselessministers of luxury and folly. I strongly suspect the Minorites,for the honour of Oderic, have ignorantly borrowed andexaggerated from Marco Polo, to decorate the legend of thefavourite Saint of Udina.--E.

When the khan makes a progress from one country to another,there are four troops of horsem*n appointed, having orders tokeep each at the distance of a days journey from the presence;one in advance, one in the rear, and one on either hand, like across, the emperor being in the middle; and each troop has itsregular days journey appointed for it, that all may keep in dueorder, and be regularly supplied with provisions. The great khanis carried in a chariot, having two wheels, on which a splendidthrone is built of aloes wood, magnificently adorned with gold,precious stones, and pearls; and this moving throne is drawn byfour elephants, richly caparisoned; before which, four warhorses, in magnificent housings, are led for his particular use.Close to the chariot, and keeping hold of it, eight barons attendon either side, to prevent all persons from approaching too near,or from incommoding the emperor. Two milk-white ger-falcons arecarried in the chariot along with the emperor, that he may flythem at any game that comes in the way. No one dare come within astones throw of the chariot in which the emperor rides, exceptthose who are expressly appointed. The number of his ownfollowers, and of those who attend the empress, and on his eldestson, would appear quite incredible to any person who had not seenthe same, and is therefore omitted. The whole empire is dividedinto twelve great provinces, one only of which has 2000 greatcities within its bounds; and the whole is so extensive, that onemay travel continually for six months in any one direction,besides the islands under his dominion, which are at least 5000in number.

SECTION XV.

Of the Inns established over the whole Empire, for the useof Travellers.

That travellers may have all things necessary throughout thewhole empire, the emperor has caused certain inns to be providedin sundry places upon the highways, where all kinds of provisionsare in continual readiness. When any intelligence is to becommunicated to him, his messengers ride post on horses ordromedaries; and when themselves and their beasts are weary, theyblow their horns, and the people at the next inn provide a manand horse in readiness to carry forward the dispatch. By thismeans, intelligence, which would take thirty days in the ordinaryway of travelling, is transmitted in one day, and he isconsequently immediately informed of any important matter whichmay occur in the most distant parts of his dominions.

About twenty days journey from Cambalu, there is a forest ofsix days journey in circuit, containing an incredible number ofdifferent kinds of beasts and birds, to which the khan usuallygoes for hunting, once in three or four years, attended by hiswhole train. The attendants environ the whole forest, and, withthe assistance of dogs, drive all the lions, stags, and otherbeasts before them, into a beautiful open plain in the midst ofthe forest. Then the khan, mounted on a throne, carried by threeelephants, rides forwards to the throng of animals, and shootsfive arrows among the herd; and after him, all his barons insuccession, and the rest of his courtiers and family attendants,discharge their arrows in like manner. Then all the survivingbeasts are allowed to go away into the forest, and all the peoplego among those beasts which are slain, and each person knows bythe particular marks on their own arrows, which of the beasts hehas right to.

SECTION XVI.

Of the four Solemn Feasts held yearly by the GreatKhan.

The great khan celebrates four great feasts every year; on theanniversaries of his birth, his circumcision, his coronation, andhis marriage. Sitting upon his throne of state, all his kindred,barons, and stage-players, attend in great ceremony and in richattire; the highest order being dressed in green, the second inred, and the third in yellow, all girt with golden girdles, halfa foot broad, and every one holding a small ivory tablet in hishand, they all stand in regular order, keeping the most profoundsilence. On the outside, all the stage-players, and themusicians, with their musical instruments, are arranged. In oneof the corners of a certain great gallery, all the philosophersor magicians attend, waiting for certain hours and moments, andwhen the fortunate moment is arrived, a crier calleth out in aloud voice, "Prostrate yourselves before the emperor," and thenall fall upon their faces. After a certain interval, the crieragain orders the whole assembly to rise up, and they do so. Atanother particular moment, fixed by the philosophers, orders aregiven in a loud voice, for every one to stop their ears withtheir fingers; afterwards they are called upon to take out theirfingers. Many similar things are performed in this manner, whichthey pretend to be significant, but which, being vain andridiculous, I gave no attention to, and am not inclined to write.When the hour of music comes, the philosophers give the word, andthey all sound their instruments, making a great and melodiousnoise; after which, orders are given to cease from the music.Then come the women musicians, who sing sweetly before theemperor, which I thought delightful. After them, the lions areled in, and are made to pay their obeisance to the emperor. Thenthe jugglers cause golden cups, full of wine, to fly up and downin the air, and to apply themselves to mens mouths, that they maydrink. And many other strange things are performed, which I omitto mention, as no one would believe me.

I was informed by certain credible persons, that in themountains of Kapsei, in the kingdom of Kalor, which is in thedominions of the great khan, there grow certain gourds, orpompions, which open when ripe, and a little beast is foundwithin them, resembling a young lamb. I have likewise heard, thatthere grow certain trees upon the shore of the Irish sea, whichcarry a fruit like gourds, and that these fall into the sea atcertain times, and are changed into birds called Bernacles.

SECTION XVII.

Of various Provinces and Cities of the East.

After a residence of three years in Cambalu, I departed fromthe empire of Kathay, and travelled fifty days to the west, whenI arrived in the dominions of Pretegoani[1], whose principal cityis Cosan. Continuing my journey for many days, I came to theprovince of Casan, which is well inhabited, and one of the firstcountries in the world, for abundance of provisions, andcommodities of all kinds, especially of chesnuts; and, is soextremely populous, that, on leaving the gates of any one city,we may always have the gates of another within sight. Thiscountry is fifty days journey in breadth, and it is above sixtydays journey in length. This is one of the twelve great provincesbelonging to the great khan.

[1] This strange word, both in the Latin and Englishof Hakluyt, is obviously the Italian for Prester John,information concerning whom will be found in the travels of MarcoPolo.--E.

Farther on, I came into another kingdom belonging to the khan,called Tebek or Thibet, which is, in my opinion, more abundant inbread and wine than any other country in the world. Theinhabitants mostly dwell in tents of black felt, The principalcity is surrounded by beautiful walls, built of large white andblack stones, disposed chequerwise; and all the highways of thecountry are well paved. In this country, from certain religiousnotions, no one dares shed the blood of a man, or of any beast.The Abassi, who is their Pope, dwells in the city alreadymentioned, being the head or prince of all the idolaters, on whomhe bestows gifts; just as our Pope of Rome considers himself tobe the head of all the Christians. The women of this country weara prodigious number of ornaments, and they have two long teethlike the tusks of a boar. When any man dies in this country, hisson assembles all the priests and musicians that he can procure,to do honour to his father, whose body he causes to be carriedout into the fields, accompanied by all the kindred, friends, andneighbours of the family. Then the priests, with great solemnity,cut off the head of the deceased, which they give to his son;after which, they divide the whole body into small pieces, whichthey leave strewed about the place; and then the whole companyreturn home in solemn procession, accompanied with prayers, theson bearing his fathers head. On their departure from the field,the vultures of the country, accustomed to similar banquets, comedown from the mountains, and carry off all the remains of thedeceased person; who is thereupon pronounced holy, because theangels of God, as they say, have carried him to paradise. Whenthe procession returns to the dwelling of the deceased, the sonboils the head of his father, and eats the flesh, converting theskull into a drinking cup, out of which he, and all his family,and kindred, carouse with much, mirth and solemnity, inremembrance of his father. This nation has many other vile andabominable customs, which I refrain from describing, because noone would believe them unseen.

SECTION XVIII.

Of a certain Rich Man, who was Fed by fiftyVirgins.

While in the province of Mangi, or Southern China, I passed bythe palace of a rich man, who is continually attended upon byfifty young virgins, who feed him at every meal as a bird feedsher young; and all the time they are so employed, they sing tohim most sweetly. The revenues of this man are thirty toman oftagars of rice, each toman being 10,000 tagars, and one tagar isthe burthen of an ass. His palace is two miles in circuit, and ispaved with alternate plates of gold and silver. Near the wall ofhis palace, there is an artificial mound of gold and silver,having turrets and steeples, and other magnificent ornaments,contrived for the solace and recreation of this great man.[l] Iwas further informed, that there are four such great men in thekingdom of Mangi. It is reckoned a great mark of dignity, amongthe great men of this country, to have their nails of greatlength; more especially their thumb nails, which are sometimes ofsufficient length to be wrapped round the hand. The beauty, andeven the rank of their women is supposed to consist in thesmallness of their feet; for which reason, mothers bind up thefeet of their daughters when young, to prevent them from growinglarge.

[1] This seems an ill-digested account of a pagoda,or idol temple, of great extent and magnificence, richly gilt,similar to those of which we have splendid views in the relationof the embassy to Ava, by Colonel Symes.--E.

SECTION XIX.

Of the Old Man of the Mountain.

Proceeding on my travels towards the south, I arrived at acertain pleasant and fertile country, called Melistorte[1], inwhich dwells a certain aged person called the Old Man of theMountain. This person had surrounded two mountains by a highwall, within which he had the fairest gardens, and finestfountains in the world, inhabited by great numbers of mostbeautiful virgins. It was likewise supplied with fine horses, andevery article that could contribute to luxury and delightfulsolace; on which account it was called by the people of thecountry the terrestrial paradise. Into this delightful residence,the old man used to entice all the young and valiant men he couldprocure, where they were initiated into all the delights of theearthly paradise, in which milk and wine flowed in abundance,through certain hidden conduits. When desirous of assassinatingany prince or nobleman, who had offended him, the old man wouldorder the governor of his paradise to entice into that place,some acquaintance or servant of the prince or baron whom hewished to slay. Allowing this person to take a full taste of thedelights of the place, he was cast into a deep sleep by means ofa strong potion, in which state he was removed from paradise. Onrecovering from his sleep, and finding himself excluded from thepleasures of paradise, he was brought before the old man, whom heentreated to restore him to the place from whence he had beentaken. He was then told, that, if he would slay such or such aperson, he should not only be permitted to return into paradise,but should remain there forever. By these means the old man usedto get all those murdered, against whom he had conceived anydispleasure; on which account all the kings and princes of theeast stood in awe of him, and paid him tribute.

[1] It is impossible to explain this strange word,Melistorte. the dominions of the old man of the mountain, and hisearthly paradise, in some other travels of the present volume,are said to have been situated in the north ofPersia.--E.

When the Tartars had subdued a large portion of the earth,they came into the country of the old man, and took from him hisparadise. Being greatly incensed at this, he sent out many of hisresolute and desperate dependents, by whom numbers of the Tartarnobles were slain. Upon this, the Tartars besieged the city ofthe old man of the mountain; and, making him prisoner, they puthim to a cruel and ignominious death.

SECTION XX.

Of several wonderful things in those parts.

In that place[1], the friars have the special gift, that,through the power of the name of Jesus Christ, and of hisprecious blood, which was shed on the cross for the remission ofour sins, they speedily expel devils from those who arepossessed. And as there are many possessed persons in thoseparts, they are brought bound, from the distance of ten daysjourney all around, to the friars; and being dispossessed of theunclean spirits, they immediately believe in Christ, who hathdelivered them, and are baptized in his name, delivering up tothe friars all their idols, and the idols of their cattle, whichare usually made of felt, or of womens hair. Then the friarskindle a great fire in some public place, into which they castthe idols before all the people. At the first, the idols used tocome out of the fire; but the friars, having sprinkled the firewith holy water, threw in the idols again, where they wereconsumed to ashes; and the devils fled away in the likeness ofblack smoke, when a noise was heard in the air, crying out aloud,"Behold how I am expelled from my habitation!" By these means,the friars have baptized great multitudes; but they mostly returnsoon again to their idols, on which account, the friars havecontinually to abide among them, to exhort and instruct them inthe faith.

[1] The place in which these wonderful things wereseen, is no where indicated; neither is the omission to beregretted, as the whole is evidently fabulous.--E.

I saw another terrible thing in those parts. Passing by acertain valley, near a pleasant river, I saw many dead bodiestherein, and I heard issuing therefrom many sweet and harmoniousmusical sounds, especially of lutes; insomuch that I was muchamazed. This valley is at least seven or eight miles long, intowhich, whoever enters, is sure to die immediately; for whichcause, all who travel by that way pass by on one side, no onebeing able to travel through that valley and live. But I wascurious to go in, that I might see what it contained. Makingtherefore my prayers, and recommending myself to God, I enteredin, and saw such vast quantities of dead bodies, as no one wouldbelieve, unless he had seen them with his own eyes. At one sideof the valley, I saw the visage of a man upon a stone, whichstared at me with such a hideous aspect, that I thought to havedied on the spot. But I ceased not to sign myself with the signof the cross, continually saying "The Word became flesh, anddwelt with us." Yet I dared not to approach nearer than seven oreight paces; and at length, I fled to another part of the valley.I then ascended a little sand hill; from whence, looking around,I saw on every side the before mentioned lutes, which seemed tome to sound of themselves in a most miraculous manner, withoutthe aid of any musicians. On the top of this sand hill, I foundgreat quantities of silver, resembling the scales of fishes, andgathered some of this into the bosom of my habit, to shew as awonder; but, my conscience rebuking me, I threw it all away, andso, by the blessing of God, I departed in safety. When the peopleof the country knew that I had returned alive from the valley ofthe dead, they reverenced me greatly; saying, that the deadbodies were subject to the infernal spirits, who were in use toplay upon lutes, to entice men into the valley, that they mightdie; but as I was a baptized and holy person, I had escaped thedanger. Thus much I have related, which I certainly beheld withmine own eyes; but I have purposely omitted many wonderfulthings, because those who had not seen them would refuse tobelieve my testimony.

SECTION XXI.

Of the Honour and Reverence shewn to the GreatKhan.

I shall here report one thing more concerning the great khanof Cathay, of which I was a witness. It is customary, when hetravels through any part of his wide dominions, that his subjectskindle fires before their doors, in such places as he means topass, into which they fling spices and perfumes, that he may beregaled by their sweet odour. And numberless multitudes flockfrom all quarters, to meet him, and do him homage. Upon a certaintime, when the approach of the khan to Cambalu was announced, oneof our bishops, together with several minorite friars and myself,went out two days journey from the city to meet him. When we camenigh to his presence, we bore aloft a cross upon a pole, andbegan to sing Veni Creator, in a loud voice, while Icarried the censer. When he came up to the place where we weresinging by the way side, he called us to come towards him; for noman dare approach within a stones throw of his chariot, unlesscalled, except those only who are appointed to attend upon hisperson. When we came near, he took off his cap or helmet, ofinestimable value, and did reverence to the cross. I immediatelyput incense into the censer; and the bishop, taking the censerinto his own hands, perfumed the khan, and gave him hisbenediction. Besides this, as those who approach the great khanalways bring with them some offering to present to him, accordingto the ancient law. "Thou shalt not come empty handed into mypresence," so we carried some apples along with us, andreverently offered them to him on a salver; and he was pleased totake two of our apples, of one of which he eat a part. The khanthen gave a sign for us to depart, lest we might have beeninjured by the crowd of horses; upon which we turned aside tocertain of his barons, who had been converted to the Christianfaith, and who were then in his train, to whom we offered theremainder of our apples, which they joyfully received, as If wehad made them some great gift.

SECTION XXII

Conclusion of the Travels, and Account of the Death ofFriar Oderic.

All the above were put down in writing by friar William deSolanga, as dictated to him by friar Oderic, in the year of ourLord 1330, in the month of May, and in the place of St Anthony atPadua. He hath not attempted to render these relations into fineLatin, or in an eloquent style, but hath written them even asrehearsed by Oderic himself.

I, friar Oderic of Portenau, in the Friuli, of the order ofminorites, do hereby testify, and bear witness to the reverendfather Guidotus, minister of the province of St Anthony, in themarquisate of Trevigi, by whom I was commanded so to do, that allwhich is here written, was either seen by myself or reported tome by credible and worthy persons; and the common report of thecountries through which I travelled, testifies all those thingswhich I have seen and related to be true. Many other wonderfulthings I have omitted, because they were not seen by myself. Itis farther mine intention, soon again to travel into foreign andfar distant lands, in which I may live or die, as it may pleasethe Almighty Disposer of events.

In the year of our Lord 1331, friar Oderic, resolving to enterupon his intended journey, determined to present himself beforePope John XXII[1] on purpose to receive his benediction, that hislabour might be the more prosperous; as he intended to travelinto the countries of the infidels, with certain friars who hadagreed to accompany him. While journeying to the residence of thepope, and not far distant from the city of Pisa, he wasencountered by an old man in the garb of a pilgrim, who salutedhim by name, saying, "Hail to you, friar Oderic." And when Odericinquired how he should know him, the old man answered, "While youwere in India, I well knew both you and your holy purpose; butnow be warned from me, and return to the convent whence you came,for in ten days you shall depart out of this world." Upon thisthe old man immediately vanished, from his sight; and Oderic,amazed at his words, determined to return to his convent, whichhe did in perfect health, feeling no illness, or decay of hisbody or faculties. And ten days afterwards, being then in hisconvent at Udina, in the province of Padua, and having receivedthe holy communion, as preparing himself unto God, yea, beingstrong and sound of body, he happily rested in the Lord,according as it had been revealed. Which holy death was signifiedunto the foresaid supreme pontiff, under the hand of a publicnotary, in the following words:

[1] This pope reigned from about 1317 to 1334, sothat the original editor, or fabricator of these travels, has sofor been fortunate in his chronology.--E.

"On the 14th of January, in the year of our Lord 1331, theblessed Oderic, a friar of the minorite order, deceased inChrist; at whose prayers God shewed many and sundry miracles,which I, Guetelus, public notary of Udina, son of Dora. Damianode Portu Gruario, at the command and direction of the noble lordConradus, of the borough of Gastaldion, one of the council ofUdina, have written down with good faith to the best of myabilities; and I have delivered a copy of the same to the friarsminors: Yet not of the whole, because they are innumerable, andtoo difficult for, me to write."

CHAPTER XIII.

Travels of Sir John Mandeville into theEast, in 1322.[1]

[1] Forst. Voy. and Disc. in the Nerth, p. 148.Pinkert. Mod. Geogr. II. xxxvi. Hakluyt, II. 76.

The travels of Sir John Mandevil, or Mandeville, are to befound in Latin in Haklyuts collection. An edition of this strangeperformance was published in 8vo. at London in 1727, by Mr LeNeve, from a MS. in the Cotton Library. This old English versionis said to have been made by the author from his own originalcomposition in Latin. It is a singular mixture of real orfictitious travels, and compilation from the works of otherswithout acknowledgement, containing many things copied from thetravels of Oderic, and much of it is culled, in a similar manner,from the writings of the ancients. Though, from thesecirc*mstances, it is a work of no authenticity and unworthy ofcredit, it has been judged indispensable to give some account ofits nature and contents.

Mandeville affirms that he was descended of an ancient andnoble family, and was born at St Albans. After receiving therudiments of a liberal education, he says that he studiedmathematics, physic, and divinity, and wrote books on all thesesciences; and became expert in all the exercises then befitting agentleman. Having a desire to travel, he crossed the sea in 1322,or 1332, for different manuscripts give both dates, and set outon a journey through France towards the Holy Land, a descriptionof which country, replete with monkish tales, and filled with themost absurd holy fables, occupies half of his ridiculous book. Inthe very outset he pretends to have visited India, and the Indianislands, and other countries; all of which appears to befabulous, or interpolation. Before proceeding to the Holy Land,perhaps the sole country which he really visited, he givesvarious routes or itineraries to and from Constantinople,containing no personal adventures, or any other circ*mstancesthat give the stamp of veracity; but abundance of nonsensicalfables about the cross and crown of our Saviour, at the imperialcity.

He pretends to have served in the army of the sultan of Egypt,whom he calls Mandybron, who must have been Malek el NaserMohammed, who reigned from 1310 to 1341, and states a war againstthe Bedouins, or Arabs of the desert, as the scene of his ownexploits. Yet he seems to have been entirely unacquainted withEgypt, and gives only a slight mention of Cairo. He representsthe sultan as residing in Bablyon, and blunders into pedanticconfusion between Babylon in Egypt, and Babylon in Chaldea, allof which is probably an injudicious complement from books commonat the time.

About the middle of the book he gives some account of theideas of the Saracens concerning Christ; and then falls into aroaming description of various countries, obviously compiledwithout consideration of time or changes of people and names;deriving most of his materials from ancient authors, particularlyfrom Pliny, and describing Mesopotamia, Chaldea, Albania,Hircania, Bactria, Iberia, and others, as if such had actuallyexisted in the geography of the fourteenth century. Where anything like modern appears, it is some childish fable, as that theark of Noah was still visible on mount Ararat. He even gives theancient fable of the Amazons, whom he represents as an existingfemale nation.

He next makes a transition to India, without any notice of hisjourney thither; arid gravely asserts that he has oftenexperienced, that if diamonds be wetted with May-dew, they willgrow to a great size in a course of years. This probably is animprovement upon the Arabian philosophy or the production ofpearls by the oysters catching that superlative seminalinfluence. The following singular article of intelligencerespecting India, may be copied as a specimen of the work: "Inthat countree growen many strong vynes: and the women drynkenwyn, and men not: and the women shaven hire berdes, and the mennot." From India he proceeds to the island of Lamary, the Lambriof Marco Polo; and by using the Italian term "the startransmontane," at once betrays the source of his plagiarism. Hisdescriptions seem disguised extracts from Polo, with ridiculousexaggerations and additions; as of snail shells so large as tohold many persons. His account of the pretended varieties of thehuman race, as of nations of Hermaphrodites, and others equallyridiculous, which he places in separate islands of the Indianocean, are mere transcripts from Pliny.

His accounts of Mangi and Kathay, or southern and northernChina, are most inaccurately stolen from Marco Polo, anddisguised or rather disfigured to conceal the theft. "The citywith twelve thousand bridges, has twelve principal gates, and inadvance from each of these a detached town, or great city,extends for three or four miles." Though he pretends to haveresided three years in Cambalu, he does not seem to have knownthe name of the khan, whom he served for fifteen months againstthe king of Mangi. Leaving Cathay he goes into Tharsis,Turquescen, Corasine, and Kommania, in which he seems to havetranscribed from Oderic; and makes Prester John emperor of India,a country divided into many islands by the great torrents whichdescend from Paradise! He gives also an account of a sea of sandand gravel, entirely destitute of water, the Mare arenosum ofOderic; to which he adds that it moves in waves like the ocean.Though he makes Prester John sovereign of India, he assigns Susain Persia for his residence; constructs the gates of his palaceof sardonyx, its bars of ivory, its windows of rock crystal, andits tables of emeralds; while numerous carbuncles, each one footin length, served infinitely better than lamps to illuminate thepalace by night. To many absurdities, apparitions, and miracles,copied and disguised from Oderic, he adds two islands in themiddle of the continent, one inhabited by giants thirty feethigh, while their elder brethren in the other are from forty-fiveto fifty feet.

He borrows many fabulous stories from Pliny, and from theromances of the middle, ages, yet so ignorantly as to reverse thevery circ*mstances of his authors. Andromeda is not the lady whowas rescued by Perseus, but the monster by which she was to havebeen devoured. Two islands in India, one called Brahmin,and the other Gymnosophist. And a thousand other fictions andabsurdities, too ridiculous even for the credulity of children.Of this worse than useless performance, the foregoing analysis isperhaps more than sufficient for the present work.--E.

CHAPTER XIV.

Itinerary of Pegoletti, between Asof andChina, in 1355.[1]

[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North, p.150.

In the year 1355, Francisco Balducci Pegoletti, an Italian,wrote a system of commercial geography, of great importance,considering the period in which it was written. Its titletranslated into English, is, "Of the Divisions of Countries, andof their Measures, Merchandize, and other things useful to beknown by the Merchants of various parts of the World." All ofthis curious work which has any reference to our presentundertaking, is the chapter which is entitled, "Guide or theRoute from Tana to Kathay, with Merchandize, and back again."This is published entire by J. R. Forster, with several learnednotes and illustrations, and is here reprinted.

From Tana or Asof to Gintarchan or Astracan[2],is twenty-five days journey with waggons drawn by oxen; but maybe accomplished in ten or twelve days, if the waggons are drawnby horses. On the road one meets with a great number of armedMoccols, Moguls or Mongals. From Gintarchan toSara[3] by the river, it is only one days sail; but fromSara to Saracanco[4], it takes eight days by water; onemay, however, travel either by land or water, whichever is mostagreeable; but it costs much less expence to go with merchandizeby water. From Saracanco to Organci[5] is a journey of twentydays with loaded camels; and whoever travels with merchandize,will do well to go to Organci, as it is a very convenient placefor the expeditious sale of goods. From Organci to Oltrarra[6],it is thirty-five or forty days journey, with camels: But ingoing direct from Saracanco to Oltrarra, it takes fifty daysjourney; and if one has no merchandize, it is a better way thanto go by Organci. From Oltrarra to Armalecco[7], it is forty-fivedays journey with loaded asses, and in this road, one meets everyday with Moguls. From Armalecco to Camexu[8], it is seventy daysjourney on asses; and from Camexu to a river called the KaraMorin[9], it is fifty days journey on horses. From thisriver, the traveller may go to Cassai[10] to dispose of hissilver there, as it is an excellent station for the expeditioussale of merchandize; and from Cassai, he may go through the wholeland of Gattay or Kathay, with the money he has received atCassai for his silver[11]. This money is of paper, and calledbalischi, four of which balischies are equal to one silversomno[12]. From Cassai to Galmalecco[l3], which isthe capital of the empire of Kathay, it is thirty daysjourney.

[2] Gintarchan, or Zintarchan, is, by JosaphatBarbaro, called also Gitarchau; and Witsan, in his account ofNorthern and Eastern Tartary, says Astracan was called of oldCitracan. By the Calmuks, it is calledHadschi-Aidar-Khan-Balgassun, or the city of Hadschi Aidar Khan,whence all these names are derived by an obvious corruption, like[Greek: Eis tnae polis], or the city, by way of eminence, bywhich the Greeks distinguished Constantinople, and which theTurks have corrupted into Estambol, andStambol.--Forst.

[3] Sara is undoubtedly the town of Saray, situatedon the eastern arm of the Wolga, or Achtuba. The Astracanmentioned in the text by Pegoletti, was not on the spot wherethat city now stands; both that ancient Astracan and Saray havingbeen destroyed by Timur Khan, or Tamerlane, as he is usuallycalled, in the winter 1395. The old town of Saray was at no greatdistance from ancient Astracan.--Forst.

[4] Saracanco is probably the town which formerlyexisted on the river Jaik or Ural, the remains of which are nowknown by the name of Saratschik.--Forst.

[5] The name of Organci is easily recognized In thetown of Urgenz in Kheucaresm; which is named Dschordschanio byAbulfeda, and Korkang by the Persians. But there were two townsof this name, the greater and the lesser Urgenz, or Old and NewUrgenz. The Old or Greater Urgenz was situated near to where theGihon discharges its waters into lake Aral; the New or IxsserUrgenz is to be found near Chiwa, or Chiva, on theGihon--Forst.

[6] Oltrarra is properly called Otrar, and alsoFarab, which latter name is to be found in Abulfeda. It issituate on the river Sihon or Sire. The Chinese, who cannotpronounce the letter r, call itUotala.--Forst.

[7] Armalecco is the name of a small town calledAlmalig, which, according to Nassir Ettusi and Ulug-beg, is inTurkestan. From the life of Timur Khan, by Shersfeddin Ali, itappears that Almalig is situate between the town of Taschkent andthe river Irtiah, in the country of the Gete, and on the banks ofthe river Ab-eile, which discharges itself into the Sihon, orSirr-Daria.--Forst.

[8] Came-xu is in all probability the name of Khameor Khami with the addition of xu, instead of Tcheou or Tsheu,which, in the Chinese language, signifies a town of the secondrank.--Forst.

[9] Obviously the Kara-Moran, called Hoang-ho by theChinese, or the Yellow River.--Forst.

[10] Cassai, or Kaway, seems to be the place calledKissen, on a lake of that name, near the northernmost windingbranch of the Kara-moran, in Lat. 41º.50'. N. long.107°. 40'. E.--Forst.

[11] It is curious to notice, in the writings, ofthis intelligent commercial geographer, and in the travels ofMarco Polo, the peculiar advantages in commerce enjoyed by theChinese at so early a period, of being paid in sliver for theircommodities and manufactures. This practice, which prevailed soearly as 1260, the era of the elder Polos, and even, in 851, whenthe Mahometan travellers visited Southern China, still continuesin 1810.--E.

[12] The value of the silver somno is nowherementioned; but it is of no importance, as it would not enable usto institute any comparison of valueswhatsoever.--E.

[13] Gamalecco is undoubtedly Cambalu, Cambalig, orKhan-balig, otherwise Pekin; exactly as Gattay is substituted forKatay Kathay, or Cathay. --Forst.

If the reader has any idea of the difficulty attendant onmaking out so many places, disguised by a vicious orthography, adifficulty, which is still more increased by the necessity thereis for determining, with accuracy, the situation of these places,and their probable distances from each other, he will be ready toallow that the task is certainly not very trifling, nor to beaccomplished without much labour. In the foregoing itinerary,Pegoletti certifies the existence of the paper money which hadbeen previously mentioned by Rubraquis, Haitho, Marco Polo, andOderic: Some of these authors describe it as having beenfabricated of cotton paper; while others remark very justly, thatit was made of the bark of the paper mulberry tree. Oderic callsit Balis, Pegoletti gives it the name of Balis-chi. A Jesuitnamed Gabriel de Magaillans, pretends that Marco Polo wasmistaken in regard to this paper money; but the concurrenttestimony of five other credible witnesses of the fact, isperfectly conclusive that this paper money did actually existduring the first Mogul dynasty, the descendants of Zinghis,called the legal tribe of Yu by the Chinese. On thedownfall of that race it was abolished.

Supposing the station on the Kara-morin and Cassai to be thesame, which is highly probable, the whole journey in thisitinerary, from Asof to Pekin, extends to 276 days, besides ninedays more by water, or 285 in all; so that allowing for delays,rests, accidents, and occasional trafficking, a whole year mayfairly be allowed, and as much for the return.

CHAPTER XV.

Voyages of Nicolo and Antonio Zeno in1380.[1]

[1] Ramusio. Forst. Voy. and Disc, p.158.

INTRODUCTION.

Although we have admitted this article into our collection, onthe authority of Ramusio and J. R. Forster, we are disposed toconsider the whole as a fabrication, altogether unworthy of anycredit. The first section, indeed, may possibly have had somefoundation in truth, as the Zenos may have navigated about theclose of the fourteenth century to the Orkneys, and someimperfect and disfigured narrative of their voyage may havefallen into the hands of Marcolini, the author or editor of thesestrangely distorted and exaggerated or pretended voyages. Inregard to the second section, unless we could suppose, that, byEstoitland and Drogio, some strangely distorted account ofdifferent districts in Ireland were meant to be enigmaticallyconveyed, the whole of that section must be pronounced a palpableand blundering forgery. But it appears obviously intended by therelater, to impress upon his readers, that some portion of thewestern hemisphere, afterwards named America, had been visited byAntonio Zeno; and the high probability is, that Marcolini, apatriotic Venetian, had invented the whole story, on purpose torob the rival republic of Genoa of the honour of haying givenbirth to the real discoverer of the New World. If there be anytruth whatever in the voyages of the Zenos, it is only to befound in the first section of this chapter; and even there thepossible truth is so strangely enveloped in unintelligible namesof persons and places, as to be entirely useless. Thesecond section is utterly unworthy of the slightestserious consideration; and must either have been a posteriorfabrication, engrafted upon an authentic, but ignorantly toldnarrative; or the seeming possibility of the first sectionwas invented to give currency to the wild forgery of thesecond. Latin books, a library, gold, ships, and foreigntrade, corn, beer, numerous towns and castles, all in the mostnorthern parts of America in the fourteenth century, whereonly nomadic savages had ever existed, are all irrefragableevidence, that the whole, or at least that portion of the voyagesof the Zenos, is an idle romance. To increase the absurdity, asif to try the gullability of the readers, Dedalus, a kingof Scotland! is assumed to have been the first discoverer of theWestern World; and his son Icarus is introduced to givehis name to a civilized island, already named Estoitland in thenarrative.

After this decided opinion of the falsehood and absurdity ofthe whole of this present chapter, it may be necessary to state,that, in a work so general and comprehensive as that we haveundertaken, it did not seem advisable or proper to suppress anarticle which had been admitted into other general collections ofvoyages and travels. The remainder of this introduction is fromthe work of Mr J. R, Forster, extracted partly from Ramusio, andpartly consisting of an ingenious attempt to explain and bolsterup the more than dubious production of Marcolini: But theseobservations are here considerably abridged; as an extended,grave, and critical commentary on a narrative we believefabulous, might appear incongruous, though it did not seem properto omit them altogether.--E.

The family of Zeno, in Venice, was very ancient, and not onlyof the highest rank of nobility, but celebrated for theperformance of great actions, and the highest offices of thestate had been filled from time immemorial by persons of thefamily. About the year 1200, Marin Zeno assisted in the conquestof Constantinople, and he was Podesta, or governor of that city,about 1205. He had a son named Pietro Zeno, who was father toRinieri Zeno, who was elected doge, or Duke of Venice, in 1282,and governed the republic for seventeen years, during whichperiod he waged a successful war against the Genoese. he adoptedAndrea, the son of his brother Marco, who was afterwards raisedto be captain-general of the Venetian fleet, in the war againstGenoa. Rinieri Zeno, the son of Andrea, was the father of PietroZeno, who, in 1362, was captain-general of the Venetian squadronin the allied fleet of the Christians against the Turks, and hadthe surname of Dracone, from the figure of a dragon which he woreon his shield. Pietro had three sons; Carlo Leone, the eldest,who was procurator and captain-general of the fleet: of therepublic, and; rescued, her from imminent danger in a war inwhich, almost all Europe was leagued for her destruction; thesecond, Nicolo, called likewise il Cavaliere, or the night,shewed great valour in the last mentioned war of Chioggiaagainst the Genoese; Antonio was the youngest.

Francesco Marcolini, a learned Italia, extracted the whole ofthe ensuing relation from the original letters of the two Zenos,Nicole and Antonio, which is published in the collection ofRamusio; and declares that Antonio laid down all the particularsof these voyages, and of the countries he and his brother hadvisited, on a map, which he brought with him to Venice, and whichhe hung up in his house as a sure pledge and incontestible proofsof the truth of his relations, and which still remained as anincontrovertible evidence in the time of Marcolini. Many havebeen inclined to reject the whole of this narrative because thenames which it assigns to several of the countries are nowhereelse to be found. After having carefully examined, and made atranslation of the whole, I am fully convinced that the narrativeis true, and that it contains internal proofs of its ownauthenticity, and I hope fully to solve, in the course of thisdissertation, all the difficulties attending the names, whichhave been strangely perverted by a vicious orthography.

It has been alleged that the whole narrative has theappearance of a mere fable; and it may be asked where isFriesland and the other countries which it mentions, to befound? Who has ever heard of a Zichmuni who vanquishedKako, or Hakon, king of Norway, in 1369, or 1380? All this isvery plausible; but we think a good deal may be done for clearingaway the difficulties.

Marcolini extracted this relation from the original letters ofthe two Zenos, who were of one of the most considerable familiesin Venice; a family which could not be supposed to have boldlyforged a story of this kind. The truth could easily have beendetected, whether these brothers existed or not, and whether theyever made voyages to the north. Besides this, the map, actuallyconstructed by Antonio, and hung up in his house at Venice,existed in the time of Marcolini, as a sure and incontestableproof of the fidelity of the narrative. How then is it possibleto harbour any doubts? In this case, there must be an end of allfaith in history.

I once held, that the countries described by the Zenos hadbeen swallowed up by an earthquake; but, reflecting that so greata revolution in nature must have left some historical vestiges,or traditions, I examined the matter over again, and found thatthe countries described, bore a strong resemblance to theOrkneys, Shetland, Faro, and Western Islands, &c. The Zenoshaving represented Porland as composed of a cluster ofsmall islands, I suspected the other names might likewise referto collective groups. Thus Estland appeared to resemble inname the Shetland, Zetland, or Hitland Islands; and on comparingthe names of Tolas, Broas, Iscant, Trans, Mimant, Dambre,and Bres, with those of Yell, Zeal or Teal, Burray orBura, of which name there are two places, West Bura, and EastBura, and when taken collectively the Buras, Unst, Tronda,Main-land, Hamer, which is the name of a place in the mainland ofOrkney, and Brassa, or Bressa, the resemblance seemed so obvious,that I no longer harboured any doubt. The land of Sorani,which lay over against Scotland, naturally suggested theSuderoe, or southern islands of the Norwegians, now calledthe Western Islands or Hebrides. Ledovo and Ilofe,are the Lewis and Islay. Sanestol, the cluster of islandsnamed Schants-oer. Bondendon, Pondon, or Pondon-towny inSky. Frisland, is Faira or Fera, also calledFaras-land. Grisland seems Grims-ay, an island to theNorth of Iceland: though I would prefer Enkhuysan to theeastwards of Iceland, but as that was probably nothing more thanan island of ice, we are compelled to assume Grims-ay,Engroneland is obviously Greenland. Estoitland musthave been Winland, the Newfoundland of the moderns; andthe Latin books may have been carried there by bishop Eric ofGreenland, who went to Winland in 1121. Drogio lay muchfarther south, and the people of Florida, when firstdiscovered, had cities and temples, and possessed gold andsilver.

Icaria with its king Icarus, could be no otherthan Ireland[2] and perhaps the name took its origin from Kerry;and as Icarus was chosen for the name of its first kingand lawgiver, his father must of course be Dedalus who, inall probability, was some Scottish prince, having a name of asimilar sound. Neome I take to be Strom-oe, one of theFaro isles, Porland probably meant the Far-oer, or Faroislands; as Far-oe, or Far- land, is easily transmuted intoPorland.

[2] This is a most unlucky blunders as Icaria andEstoitland are obviously one and the same place in the narrativeof Marcclini, and therefore, both must be America, or bothIreland, or both in nubibus.--E.

It is true that we find no such name as Zicumni amongthe princes of the Orkneys. The race of the ancient earls ofOrkney, descendants of Jarl Einar-Torf, becoming extinct, MagnusSmak, king of Norway, nominated, about 1343, Erngisel SunasonBot, a Swedish nobleman, to be Jarl or Earl of Orkney. In 1357Malic Conda, or Mallis Sperre, claimed the earldom. Afterwards,in 1369, Henry Sinclair put in his claim, and was nominated earlin 1370, by King Hakon. In 1375, Hakon nominated Alexander Le-Ardto be earl for a year. But Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, and by alarge sum procured the investiture from Hakon in 1379, and weknow from history, that he remained earl in 1406, and waslikewise possessed of Shetland. The name Sinclair, orSiclair, might easily to an Italian ear seemZichmni; and as Sinclair vanquished Le-Ard, whor*presented the king of Norway, it was no great impropriety tosay that he had beaten the king of Norway. After theseelucidations, there can be no reason left to doubt of the truthof this narrative of the Zenos which besides, as considered withrelation to the geography of the north at that period, is ofgreat importance --Forst.

SECTION I

Narrative of Nicolo Zeno.

Nicolo Zeno, surnamed il Cavaliere, or the knight, hada strong desire to see distant countries, that he might becomeacquainted with the manners and languages of foreign nations, bywhich he might acquire credit and reputation, and might renderhimself the more useful to his country. Being a man of greatproperty, he fitted out a ship with this view, at his ownexpence, in 1380, and sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar tothe northwards, intending to visit England and Flanders. By astorm, which lasted many days, his ship was cast away on thecoast of Frislanda[1].

[1] Faira, or Fara, in the Orkneys, calledFarras-land, and corrupted into Feislanda orFrisland.--Forst.

The vessel was entirely lost, but the crew got safe on shore,and part of the cargo was saved. Zeno and his people were soonattacked by the natives, attracted by the hopes of a richplunder, against whom they were hardly able, in their weary andweather-beaten state, to defend themselves; but, fortunately forthem, Zichmni, or Sinclair, the reigning prince or lord ofPorlanda[2], who happened to be then in Frislanda,and heard of their shipwreck, came in all haste to their relief,of which they stood in great need. After discoursing with themfor some time in Latin, he took them under his protection; andfinding Nicolo Zeno very expert, both in naval and militaryaffairs, he gave him, after some time, the post of admiral of hisfleet, which Nicolo for some time refused, but at lengthaccepted.

[2] Mr Forster is not happy in his explanation ofthis word, Porlanda or Porland, which he endeavours to derivefrom Fara-land; precisely the same with Fris-land fromFaras-land, only dropping the genitive s. Porland seemsused as a general name of the earldom, perhaps connected with thestrange name Pomona, still used for mainland, the largest of theOrkney islands. Frisland the particular Fara islands, or one ofthem.--E.

Not long afterwards, Nicola wrote an account of thesecirc*mstances to his brother Antonio, inviting him to come toFrislanda; who accordingly soon arrived there, and livedfour years along with Nicolo in that country; and remained tenyears in the service of Zichmni, or Sinclair, the princeof that country, after the death of his brother Nicolo.

Nicolo Zeno having been shipwrecked in 13SO, on the island ofFrislanda, and saved by prince Zichmni from therude attacks of the natives, put himself and all his people underthe protection of this prince, who was lord of certain islandslying to the south of Frislanda, which were calledPorlanda, and were the most fertile and most populous ofall the islands in those parts. Zichmni, or Sinclair, wasbesides this duke of Sorany[3], a place which lies on oneside of Scotland. Of these northern parts, I, Antonio Zeno, haveconstructed a map, which hangs up in my house; and which, thoughit be much decayed by time, may serve to give some information tothe curious.

[3] Sorany or Sorani, of which Sinclair is said tohave been duke or lord, Mr Forster considers to have been theSodor-oe, or southern islands of the Norwegians, or those nowcalled the Western Islands; and traces the corruption from theNorwegian plural Suder-oer contracted Soroer,varied Soroen and transmuted to Sorani. All thismay be possible; but it does not appear in Scots history that theSinclairs ever held the Western Islands, and certainly not atthis period: Sorani ought therefore to be looked for inCaithness; or it may possibly refer to Roslin nearEdinburgh, which belonged to the family ofSinclair.--E.

Zichmni the lord of all these countries, was a man ofgreat courages and famous for his skill in navigation. The yearbefore the arrival of Nicolo Zeno, he had defeated the king ofNorway in a pitched battle, and was now come with his forces toconquer Frislandia, which is much larger than Iceland. Onaccount of the knowledge of Nicolo Zeno in maritime affairs, theprince took him and all his crew on board his fleet, and gaveorders to his admiral to treat him with the highest respect, andto take his advice in every affair of importance.

Zichmni had a fleet consisting of thirteen vessels, twoof which only were galleys, the rest being small barks, and onlyone of the whole was a ship[4]. With all these they sailed to thewestward, and without much difficulty made themselves masters ofLedovo and Ilofe[5], and several other smallerislands and turning into a bay called Sudero, in the havenof the town of Sanestol[6] they took several small barksladen with fish[7]; and here they found Zichmni who cameby land with his army, conquering all the country as he went.They stayed here but a short time, and then shaped their courseto the westwards, till they came to the other cape of the gulf orbay, and here turning again, they found certain islands andbroken lands, all of which they brought under subjection toZichmni, or Sinclair. These seas were all full of shoalsand rocks, insomuch that if Nicolo Zeno and the Venetian marinershad not acted as pilots, the whole feet, in the opinion of allwho were in it, must have been lost; so small was the skill oftheir people in comparison with ours, who had been trained up inthe art and practice of navigation from their childhood. Afterthe proceedings already mentioned, the admiral, by the advice ofNicolo Zeno, determined to make for the shore, at a town calledBondendon[8], with a view to get intelligence of thesuccess which Zichmni had met with in the prosecution ofthe war on land. They here learned, to their great satisfaction,that he had fought a great battle, in which he had put the armyof the enemy to flight; and in consequence of this intelligence,the inhabitants sent ambassadors from all parts of the island,agreeing to yield the country to his pleasure, and took downtheir flags and ensigns in every town and castle. It wastherefore thought advisable to remain at Bondendan for hisarrival, as they had received reports that he would certainly bethere in a short time. On his arrival there were greatcongratulations and rejoicings, as well for the victory obtainedby land as for the success of the naval expedition; and theVenetians were much honoured and extolled for their skill, everytongue being loud in their praises, and Nicolo Zeno was muchapplauded for his prowess. The prince caused Nicolo to be broughtinto his presence, and bestowed high commendations for the skillhe had exerted in saving the fleet, and for the great valour hehad displayed in the taking of many towns, where indeed there wasno great difficulty or opposition; in reward for which hebestowed upon him the honour of knighthood, and distributed richand liberal presents among his followers. Departing fromBondendon, the fleet returned in triumph toFrislanda, the chief city of which is situated on thesouth-east side of the island within a gulf, of which there aremany in that island. In this gulf or bay, there are such vastquantities of fish taken, that many ships are yearly laden thenceto supply Flanders, Britannia[9], England, Scotland, Norway, andDenmark; and the produce of this fishing brings great riches intothe country.

[4] By this latter distinction, Zeno probably means adecked vessel.--E.

[5] It is hardly possible to mention all the littleislands, and the places situated on the largest of the OrcadianIslands, which by the ancients was called Pomona, and on accountof its size, is likewise called Mainland, also Hross-ey,i.e. Gross-ey, or large island. The town was calledKirkiu-og or the harbour near the church, now called bythe Scots, Kirkwall.--Forst.

In this note Mr Forster wanders from the subject in hand, andhis observations have no reference to the present expedition.Ledovo is probably the Island of Lewis, and Ilofemay possibly be Hay, though that conjecture would lead them toofar to the south.--E.

[6] Sudero, or Suder-oe, might mean theWestern Islands so called by the Norwegians; but certainly heremeans some bay of Sutherland, as they here met the troops ofSinclair, who had marched by land. The town of Sanestol isquite inexplicable. Though Mr Forster supposes it to have beenthe cluster of islands called Schant, or Shanti-oer, which hethinks is here corrupted into Sanestol: But, if correct in ouropinion, that they must have been on the main land of Scotland,his conjecture must be erroneous. These conquests could benothing more than predatory, incursions, strangelyexaggerated.--E.

[7] This is a very early mention of salted fish, yetwithin the lifetime of William Beukels, the supposed inventor ofthe art of pickling herrings who died in 1397. Professor Sprengelhas shewn that herrings were caught at Gernemue, orYarmouth, so early as 1283. In Leland's Collectanea we meet witha proof that pickled herrings were sold in 1273; and there areGerman records which speak of them so early as 1236. Vide Gerken,Cod. Diplom. Brandenb. I. 45. and II. 45l.--Forst.

[8] This is certainly a place in the isle of Skycalled Pondontown.--Forst.

[9] Britannia in this place is assuredly put forBritany in France.--E.

The foregoing circ*mstances were contained in a letter sent byNicolo Zeno to his brother Antonio, in which he invited him tocome to Frislanda; and accordingly the latter set sail forthis purpose, and, having surmounted many dangers, safely joinedhis brother in that far distant country. Antonio remainedfourteen years in Frisland or Orkney; four years of that timealong with his brother, and ten years alone after the death ofNicolo. The elder Zeno ingratiated himself so much into thefavour of the prince, that he was appointed admiral of a fleetwhich was sent out upon an expedition against Estland[10],which lies between Frisland and Norway. The invaders committedgreat ravages in that country, but hearing that the king ofNorway was coming against them with a considerable fleet, theydeparted in haste; and being assailed by a violent tempest, theywere driven on certain shoals where a part of their ships werelost, and the remainder were saved upon Grisfand[11], alarge but uninhabited island. The fleet of the king of Norway wasovertaken by the same storm and mostly perished; of whichZichmni, who was personally engaged in this expedition,was apprized in consequence of one of the enemy's ships havinglikewise been forced to take refuge in Grisland. Findinghimself driven so far to the north, and having repaired hisships, Zichmni now resolved to make an attack upon the island ofIceland, which was under the dominion of the king of Norway; butfinding it too well fortified and defended for his small force,and reflecting that his diminished fleet was now in bad repair,he deemed it prudent to retire. In his way homewards, however, hemade an attack upon the islands of Estland, of which thereare seven in number. These are Tolas, Yeal or Zel;Broas, Brassa sound; Iscant, Unst or Vust;Trans, Trondra; Mimant, Mainland;Danbert[12]; and Bres, or Bressa; all of which heplundered, and built a fort in Bres, where he left Nicolo Zeno inthe command, with a sufficient garrison and a few small barks,while he returned himself to Frisland. In the ensuing spring,Nicolo Zeno resolved to go out upon discoveries; and, havingfitted out three small vessels, he set sail in July, shaping hiscourse to the northwards, and arrived in Engroveland[13],where he found a monastery of predicant friars, and a churchdedicated to St Thomas, hard by a mountain that threw out firelike Etna or Vesuvius.

[10] Estland is probably meant for Shetland, formerlycalled Yaltaland or Hitland, and afterwards changed into Zet-landand Shetland. This will appear more distinctly in the sequel,when the names given by Zeno to the particular islands of thegroup, come to be compared with, the modernnames.--Forst.

[11] Grisland seems to be the island which lies tothe eastward of Iceland, called Enkhuyzen; perhaps the island ofGrims-ey to the north, of Iceland.--Forst.

[12] Probably Hamer, a place on the north ofMainland.--Forst.

[13] Engrgroneland, Groenland, orGreenland.--Forst.

In this place there is a spring of boiling hot water, by meansof which the monks heat their church, monastery, and cells. It islikewise brought info their kitchen, and is so hot that they useno fire for dressing their victuals; and by enclosing their breadin brass pots without any water, it is baked by means of this hotfountain as well as if an oven had been used for the purpose. Themonks have also small gardens, covered over in winter, whichbeing watered from the hot spring are effectually defended fromthe extreme cold and snow, which are so rigorous in this regionso near the pole. By these means they produce flowers, andfruits, and different kinds of herbs, just as they grow intemperate climates; and the rude savages of those parts, fromseeing these to them supernatural effects, take the friars forgods, and supply them with poultry, flesh[14], and various otherthings, reverencing the monks as their lords and rulers. When thefrost and snow is considerable, the monks warm their apartmentsas before described, and by admitting the hot water, or openingtheir windows, they are able in an instant to produce such atemperature as they may require.

[14] The poultry here mentioned in the text; musthave been ptarmagans and the flesh that of thereindeer.--Forst.

In the buildings of their monastery they use no more materialsthan are presented to them by the before mentioned volcano.Taking the burning stones which are thrown from the crater, theythrow them, while hot, into water, by which they are dissolvedinto excellent lime; which, when used in building, lasts forever.The same stones, when cold, serve to make their walls and vaults,as they cannot be broken or cut except with an iron instrument.The vaults which they build with these stones are so light as torequire no props for supporting them[15]. On account of thesegreat conveniences, the monks have constructed so many walls andbuildings of different kinds, as is really wonderful to see. Thecoverings or roofs of their houses are constructed for the mostpart in the following manner: Having carried the wall to its fullheight, they make it to incline or bend in gradually till it forma regular vault. They are little incommoded with rain in thiscountry; as the climate is so extremely cold, that the first snowthat falls does not thaw for nine months.

[15] The lime or mortar here described, appears to bethe terra puzzuolana or terras, a compound of lime and oxid ofiron, which forms an indestructible cement, even under water; andthe remarkably light stones ejected from the volcano, and used inthe construction of their vault, were probably ofpumice.--E.

The monks live mostly on fish and wild fowl; for, inconsequence of the boiling hot water running into a large andwide haven of the sea, that bay is kept from freezing, and thereis so great a concourse of sea fowl and fish in that place, thatthey easily take as many of them as they can possibly haveoccasion for, with which they maintain a great number of peopleround about, whom they keep constantly employed either inbuilding or in catching fish and fowls, and in a thousand othernecessary occupations relative to the monastery. The houses ofthese natives are built on the hill near the monastery, of around form, about twenty-five feet wide at the bottom, andgrowing gradually narrower as they go up, in a conical form,ending in a small hole at top, to admit light and air; and thefloor of the house is so hot, that the inhabitants feel no coldwithin doors at any season. To this place many barks resort insummer from the neighbouring islands, from the cape above Norway,and from Trondon or Drontheim, which bring to the fathersall kind of commodities and merchandize that they have occasionfor; taking fish in exchange, dried either in the sun or by meansof cold, and the furs of various animals. The commodities broughthere for sale are, wood for fuel, wooden utensils, veryingeniously carved, corn, and cloth for making into garments. Bythese means the monks are plentifully supplied with every thingthey need, in exchange for their furs and fish, which are ingreat request by all the neighbouring nations. Monks resort tothis monastery from Norway and Sweden, and other countries; butprincipally from Iceland. It often happens that many barks aredetained here ail the winter, by the sea becoming frozenover.

The fishermens boats of this country are made in the form of aweavers shuttle, long and narrow, and pointed at each end;constructed of a light frame of fish bones, cased all over withthe skins of fishes, sewed together in many doubles, and so tightand strong, that it is wonderful to see the people bindthemselves fast within them during storms, and allow the windsand waves to drive them about, without fear of their boatssplitting or of themselves being drowned. Even when they aredriven against a rock, they remain sound and without hurt ordamage. In the bottom of each boat there is a kind of sleeve ornose, tied fast in the middle by a string; and when any watergets into the boat, they let it run into the upper half, of thesleeve, which they then fasten with two pieces of wood, afterwhich they loosen the under band, and squeeze the water out; andthey repeat this operation as often as may be necessary withgreat facility, and without danger.

The water, of the boiling spring, being sulphureous, isconveyed into the monastery, and the cells of the principalfriars, by means of pipes made of copper, tin, or stone; and isso hot that it heats the apartments like a stove, withoutcommunicating any disagreeable or unwholesome stench. Their sweetwater for drinking is conveyed in a subterraneous canal ofmasonry, into a great copper reservoir in the middle of the courtof the convent; and this reservoir being contained within alarger bason supplied from the boiling, spring, is continuallykept of a proper temperature, and prevented from freezing. Thisthey use in the preparation of their victuals, for drinking, andfor watering their gardens. Thus they derive much convenience andcomfort from the adjoining volcano, and these good friars make ittheir chief study to keep their gardens in order, and to erectcommodious and even elegant buildings. For this latter purposethey are in no want of good workmen and ingenious artizans, asthey give good wages, so that there is a great resort of workmenand artizans of every denomination; they are likewise verybountiful to those who carry them fruits, and seeds, and otherarticles; and as great profits are to be made, and provisions arevery cheap, there is a great resort of workmen and artists ofevery denomination, and of traders to this place. Most of thesemonks speak Latin, particularly the superiors and principals ofthe monastery.

This is all that is known of Engroveland or Greenland,from the relation of Nicolo Zeno, who gives likewise a particulardescription of a river that he discovered, as is to be seen inthe map which I, Antonio Zeno, have drawn of all these countries.Not being able to bear the cold of these northern andinhospitable regions, Nicolo Zeno fell sick, and soon afterwardsreturned to Frisland, where he died. He left two sons behind him,John and Thomas; the latter of whom had likewise two sons,Nicolo, the father of the celebrated Cardinal Zeno, and Peter,from whom was descended the rest of the Zenos who are now living.After the death of Nicolo, his fortune, honours, and dignity,devolved upon his brother Antonio; and, though he made greatsupplications and entreaties for the purpose, he was notpermitted to return to his native country; as Zichmni, who was aman of a high spirit and great valour, had resolved to makehimself master of the sea, and for this purpose made use of thetalents and advice of Antonio, and ordered him to go with a fewbarks to the westwards, because in the summer several islands hadbeen discovered by some of the fishermen. Of this voyage and thediscoveries which were made in consequence of it, Antonio givesan account in a letter to his brother Carlo, which we here giveexactly as it was written, having only altered a few antiquatedwords[16].

[16] The greater part of this concluding paragraphmust necessarily be in the language of the editor; perhaps ofRamusio. It contains, however, some palpable contradictions,since Nicolo Zeno could hardly be supposed to mention therest of the Zenos, descendants of his grand-nephew, whilestill living himself; neither does it appear how the sons ofNicolo got back to Venice; and there is no account of Antonioever being allowed to return at all.--E.

SECTION II.

Sequel of the Narrative by Antonio Zeno.

Twenty-six years ago, four fishing boats, which had beenovertaken by a violent storm, were driven out to sea for a greatmany days; and on the cessation of the tempest, they discoveredan island called Estoitland, which lay above a thousandmiles to the westward of Frisland. One of the boats,containing six men, was cast away upon this island; and the men,being made prisoners by the inhabitants, were conducted to a fineand populous city where the king resided, who sent for variousinterpreters, but none could be found except one who spoke Latin.This man, who, in like manner, had been cast by accident on thesame island, asked them, by order of the king, from what countrythey had come; and being made acquainted with their case, theking ordered that the should stay in the country. These ordersthey obeyed, as indeed they could not do otherwise, and theyremained five years on the island, during which time they learnedthe language of the people. One of them was in various parts ofthe island, and affirms that it is a very rich country, aboundingin every commodity and convenience in life, being little lessthan Iceland, but much more fertile, having a very high mountainin the centre, from whence four great rivers take their source,and traverse the whole country.

The inhabitants are a very ingenious and sensible people, andhave arts and handicrafts of every kind as we have; and it ishighly probable that they formerly carried on some traffic withEurope, as this man says he saw Latin books in the kings library,but which at present they do not understand; for they have alanguage of their own, and peculiar letters or characters inwhich it is written. They trade with Engroveland orGreenland, and get from thence furs, brimstone, and pitch. To thesouth of Estoitland there is a very large and populouscountry, which abounds with gold. The people sow corn, and makethe liquor called beer, which is drank by the people of the northas wine is among us in Italy. They have large and extensivewoods; make their buildings with walls; and have a great numberof towns and castles. They build ships and navigate the sea; butthey have not the loadstone, and know nothing about the use ofthe compass; on which account these fishermen were held in highestimation, insomuch that the king sent them with twelve ships tothe southward to a country called Drogio. In their voyagethither, they had such contrary winds and stormy weather thatthey thought to have foundered at sea; but escaping that death,they met with a fate still more dreadful, as they were madeprisoners by the savages, who are cannibals, and most of themwere devoured. But the Frisland fisherman and his companions, byteaching these barbarians the way to catch fish with nets, savedtheir lives. This man used to go every day to the sea or therivers, in which he caught vast quantities of fish, which he gaveaway among the principal people of the country; by which means hegot into such high favour that he was beloved and respected byevery body.

The fame of this man spread abroad through the whole country;and one of the lords, being very desirous to have him, that hemight see and learn this new and wonderful art of catching fish,made war against the lord with whom he lived, and prevailing inconsequence of his superior power and greater skill in war, thefisherman and his companions were given up to him as the price ofpeace. During thirteen years that he resided in these parts, hesays that he was transferred in this manner to twenty-fivedifferent lords, as they were continually at war with each otherto procure possession of him; so that by wandering about thecountry in this manner he became perfectly well acquainted withevery part of it, He says that it is a very extensive country,and as it were a new world; but that the inhabitants are a rudeunpolished people, without the enjoyment of any convenience oflife; for, although they take or kill many wild animals inhunting, they have not the sense to make their skins intogarments, but all go naked, and are miserably pinched with cold.They are besides extremely uncivilized and savage, continuallyengaged in wars against each other, in which they commit horribleravages, and devour their prisoners. They know not the use of anymetal, and live by the chase, being armed with spears of woodmade sharp at the point, and use bows, the strings of which aremade of slips of hide. They are divided into small tribes, eachof which has its lord or governor, and the laws or customs of theseveral tribes differ much from each other. Farther to thesouthwest, however, the manners are more civilized in proportionto the increasing mildness of the climate; and there the peopleare not without some degree of knowledge, making use of gold andsilver, and having cities and temples dedicated to idols, inwhich they offer up human sacrifices.

After residing many years among this savage people, theprincipal fisherman became desirous of returning into his owncountry, but his companions being without hope of ever seeing itagain, wished him prosperity in his attempt, and resolved toremain where they were. Bidding them farewell, he fled throughthe woods, in the direction which led towards Drogio, andwas received with great kindness by one of the lords of thatcountry who knew, him, and who was a determined enemy to the lordfrom whence he had escaped. Thus passing from one lord toanother, with all of whom he was well acquainted, as he hadformerly resided with them all, he at length, and with greatdifficulty, arrived in Drogio, where he stayed three years. Thenfortunately hearing that some small vessel had arrived on thecoast, he went thither, and learned, to his unspeakablesatisfaction, that they were from Estoitland. Upon this,he earnestly requested to be taken on board, which they did verywillingly; and as he understood the language of the country,which the others did not, he became their interpreter. Heafterwards made repeated voyages from Estoitland toDrogio and acquired great riches. After which, he equippeda bark of his own, in which he returned to Frisland wherehe made a report to his lord of all that had befallen him, and ofthe discovery he had made of an extensive and wealthycountry.

As this strange and marvellous story was confirmed by thetestimony of the sailors he had brought along with him, it gainedfull credit; and accordingly Zichmni determined to send me,Antonio Zeno, with a fleet into these parts; and so great was thedesire among the people to embark in this expedition, that ourfleet was well manned and equipped without expence to the public.I accordingly set sail with a great number of ships and men, butnot commander in chief as I expected, for Zichmni went in personon the expedition. Our great preparation for the voyage toEstoitland began in an unlucky hour as, three days beforeour departure, the fisherman died who was to have been our guide;yet Zichmni would not give up the enterprise, but took for, hisguides several of the sailors who had returned with the fishermanfrom Estoitland. Shaping our course to the westwards, wepassed several islands subject to Frisland, and arrived atLedovo, or the Lewis, where we staid a week to refreshourselves, and to provide the fleet with necessaries. Departingthence, we arrived on the first of July off the island ofIlofe, or Islay; and the wind being favourable, did notstop there but stood on our voyage. Not long afterwards, being inthe main sea, we were overtaken by a dreadful tempest, whichtossed us to and fro, at the mercy of the winds and waves foreight days, so that we knew not whereabouts we were. By theviolence of this tempest, we lost many of our vessels, but afterthe return of good weather, we collected the remains of ourshattered fleet, and having a fair wind, we stood on to thewestwards, and at length descried the coast of Estoitland,and arrived in a good and safe harbour. Here we saw an infinitenumber of armed men running furiously towards the shore,apparently for the purpose of defending the island. Upon this,Zichmni commanded signs of peace to be made, and the islanderssent ten men to us who could speak ten different languages; butwe could understand none of these, excepting one man who happenedto be an Icelander. This man was brought to our prince, and gavethe following account of the country; and people.

The land was called Icarta, and all its kings werenamed Icarus, after the name, of its first king, who wasthe son of Daedalus king of Scotland. This Daedalushad discovered and conquered the island, and after institutingthe body of laws by which they are still governed, had left themhis son to be their king. After this, Daedalus[1] sailedin quest of farther discoveries, but was overtaken by a violentstorm and drowned. In memory of which, they named their islandIcaria, the sea surrounding it the Icarian sea, and alltheir successive kings Icarus. He stated, moreover, thatthey were perfectly contented with the state in which they hadbeen placed by Providence, and not choosing to make the smallestchange in their manners and customs, would admit no strangersinto their land; and therefore requested the prince not toattempt violating the laws of their king, of glorious memory, asany such attempt would turn to his manifest destruction, sincethey were resolved to sacrifice their lives in defence of theirlaws. They were willing, however, to receive one of ourmen, who should be advanced to the rank of a chief, on purpose tolearn our language; having already received ten differentmen with that view from ten different nations.

[1] Or Icarus, for the language in Forster isambiguous, and does not clearly fix this important historicalfact!--E.

Upon this Zichmni sailed from the harbour, as ifmeaning to go away from the island; but being in want of wood andwater, he skirted along the coast at some distance, and put intoanother harbour on the eastern side of the island with all hisfleet. Here the mariners went on shore, and procured thenecessary supplies with all possible speed, lest they might beattacked by the natives. This precaution was by no meansunnecessary, for the inhabitants near this harbour made signalsby fire and smoke to the rest of the country; and taking to theirarms, were soon joined by others, and came down upon our men withbows and arrows, and other weapons, and in the conflict, many ofthem were killed, and others dangerously wounded[2]. We weretherefore obliged to depart, and made a large circuit round theisland, always accompanied on the shore and on the hills by avast number of armed men to oppose our landing. Seeing thatnothing could be done here, Zichmni set sail to the eastwardswith a fair wind; and after six days sail, we came in sight ofland, which we found to be a very good country, with an excellentharbour. We descried a mountain at a considerable distance, whichemitted smoke, and Zichmni sent an hundred soldiers to explorethe country, and to inquire if it were inhabited. In themeantime, we took in wood and water, and caught vast quantitiesof fish and sea-fowl, and procured immense numbers of eggs; sothat our people, before almost famished, had now more provisionsthan they could eat. To this harbour, we gave the name of portTrin, and the point that stretched out into the sea wasnamed Cape Trin. The soldiers who had been sent out toexamine the country, returned at the end of eight days, andreported they had been all through the island, quite to thesmoking mountain, and that the smoke we saw proceeded from a fireat its bottom, where there was a spring of liquid pitch which raninto the sea. They said likewise, that the interior of the islandwas inhabited by a wild people, who were very short in stature,and timid, and hid themselves in, caves.

[2] The expression is here so equivocal as to leavein doubt whether the killed and wounded were Icarians orFrislanders, or part of both.--E.

On receiving this piece of intelligence, and considering thatthe island was blest with a pure and wholesome air, good soil,fine rivers, and many other advantages, Ziehmni resolved topeople it and to build a town at Port Trin, and took, great painsto discover the whole of it, and to explore the seas on bothsides of Engroveland, or Greenland. But many of his peoplebegan to murmur, being quite wearied with so tedious a voyage,alleging, that as the winter was fast approaching, they shouldnot be able to return home before the ensuing summer, if theymade any longer delay. On this account, retaining only therow-boats, and as many men as were willing to stay with him.Zichmni sent away all the rest of the people with the ships,giving the command to me, Antonio Zeno, much against my will.Taking therefore our departure, we sailed twenty days to theeastwards, without seeing any land; on which we shifted ourcourse to the south-east, and after five days, we came in sightof the island of Neome[3], so that we passed Iceland withoutseeing it. We here procured refreshments from the inhabitants,who were subject to Zichmni, and sailed thence in three days toFrisland, where we were received with great joy, as thepeople thought, in consequence of our long absence, that theirprince and the whole armament had been lost.

[3] Neome seems to be the isle or Stromoe, oneof the Faro Islands; as it is in fact to the southward ofIceland, and only three days sail from the Orkneys, theFaras-islands, or Frisland of thisauthor.--Forst.

As to the particulars concerning the people and their customs,the animate, and the productions of these countries, I havewritten all these in a separate book, in which I have describedthe country, and the wonderful fishes of Frisland,Estland, Norway, Estoitland, Drogio, Icaria, andEngroveland, on both its sides. I have composed likewise,the life of my brother Nicolo Zeno, with an account of hisdiscoveries; and a history of the life and acts ofZichmni, a prince as worthy of immortal fame as any thatever lived, having been famous for his valour, enterprisingspirit, and humanity.

CHAPTER XVI.

Travels of John Schildtberger intoTartary, in 1394.[1]

[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p.158.

John Schildtberger, a native of Munich in Bavaria, went withthe army of King Sigismund of Hungary, against the Turks in 1394.In 1395, being taken prisoner, he was sent by Bajazet, whose namehe always writes Weyasit, into Asia. In the great battle,in which Bajazet was defeated, and taken captive by Timur,Schildtberger was again made prisoner, and accompanied thatconqueror in all his expeditions, till his death in 1405, atOtrar or Farab, though Schildtberger says that he died in hiscapital of Samarcand. After the death of Timur, he entered intothe service of Shah-Rokh, and was left by that prince among theauxiliary troops, which assisted his brother Miran-Shah againstKara-Joseph, a Turkomanian emir of the black-weather tribe.Miran-shah having been made prisoner and beheaded by Kara-Joseph,Schildtberger followed the standards of Abubekr, the son ofMiran-shah.

At this time, there lived in the court of Abubekr, a princenamed Zegra, a son of the khan of Great Tartary, to whom Ideku[2]sent word that he would resign to him the sovereignty ofKiptschak. Zegra accordingly set out for Great Tartary,accompanied by Schildtberger, and four others. Their route laythrough Strana[3], which produces good silk; then throughGursey, Gurghia, or Georgia, which is inhabited byChristians; after this, through the country of,Lahinsham[4], where silk is cultivated; and throughSchurban, or Shirvan, where the silk is produced fromwhich the silk stuffs of Damascus and Kaffer[5] are made.They next passed through Bursa[6], which is situated inTurkey, and from whence the fine silk, of which velvet ismanufactured, is sent to Venice and Lucca: This is an unhealthycountry. Their route next lay through Temur-capit,Demir-Kapi or, Derbent, which signifies, in the Tartarianlanguage, the Iron-gate, and which separates Persia from Tartary.They then went through a town of great strength, calledOrigens[7], situated in the middle of the Edil.After this, their way was through the mountainous country ofSetzalet, in which there are many Christians, who have a bishopand some Carthusian monks, who perform the service in theTartarian language, that the common people may understand what issung and read. They were now arrived in Great Tartary, at thecamp of Ideku, who had just assembled all his forces and wasgoing to march into the land of Ibissibur[8]. In thisexpedition, they employed two months of continual marching; inthe course of which, they crossed a range of mountains,thirty-two days journey in length, and at their extremity, thereis a desert, which is the end of the world[9]; which desert isuninhabitable from the number of reptiles and wild beasts withwhich it is infested. These mountains are inhabited by roamingsavages, who are hairy all over, except their faces andhands[10], and who subsist on green leaves and roots, or whateverthey can procure. In this country, also, there, are wild asses aslarge as horses. The inhabitants employ dogs, as large as asses,to draw carts and sledges, and some times feed upon them. Theyare Christians, and they bury, their young people who die incelibacy, with music and rejoicing, eating and drinking at theirgraves. In this country they cultivate nothing but beans, andthey eat no bread. Having made a conquest of Bissibur,they marched into. Walor[11], which they also conquered,and then returned into Kiptschak.

[2] About this period, many abuses subsisted amongthe Golden Tribe on the Wolga. Mamay and Ideku, or Yedeghey-khan,called Edigi by Schildtberger, had not the title of great khan ofthe Golden Tribe in Kiptschak, but held in fact the supreme powerin their hands, and set up khans from among the royal family, ordeposed them at their pleasure.--Forst.

[3] The names are much disfigured, and thecommencement of the journey is not mentioned; but, from thecourse afterwards, this may be some corruption for Armenia, orone of its districts.--E.

[4] Perhaps a corruption forDaghistan.--E.

[5] Perhaps Kahira, or Cairo.--E.

[6] Schildtberger, or his transcriber, calls this thetown of Bursa, by mistake for the mountain ofAl-Burs.--Forst.

[7] Probably Agrachan; as both Astracan and Saray hadbeen demolished by Timur. As to his saying that it stood in themiddle of the Edil, Etilia, or Wolga, that may be a mistake; butat any rate, Edil signifies any riverwhatever.--Forst.

[8] Bissibur or Issibur, is the ancient Russian townof Isborsk.--Forst. It would appear that the present expeditionwas into Siber, or Siberia --E.

[9] This appears to refer to the Uralian chain, andthe frozen regions of the north of Russia.--E.

[10] A mistake, by confounding close-made dresses offur with the notion of naked men, covered all over with shaggyhair.--E.

[11] Probably Wolgar, Bulgar, or Bulgaria, is heremeant.--E.

At this period, there was a high officer of state among theTartars, called Obmann, who had usurped the power of nominatingand deposing the khan, and to whom all the lords or chiefs weresubservient. This anomalous dignity was now held by Ideku; who,as has been already mentioned, had invited Zegra to accept thedignity of khan. This Ideku, with the khan, all the nobility, andthe whole people, wandered continually up and down the country,with their wives and children, their cattle, and whole property,to the number of about 100,000 people, having no fixed abodes,but dwelling in moveable huts, at all seasons of the year. Atthis time there was a king in Tartary, named Schudichochey or Kom, or Schadibeck-knan, the son ofTimur-Utluck, grandson of Timur-melik-aglen, and great-grandsonof Urus- Khan, This Schadibeck reigned from 1401 to 1406.Immediately on hearing that Ideku was approaching, he took toflight; but was pursued, and killed in a skirmish. Idekuappointed Polat or Pulad-khan, the son[12] of Schadibeck,to be his successor, who reigned a year and a half, between 1406and 1408. After him Segel-Aladie, or Zedy-khan, the son ofTokatmysch or Toktemysch-khan, got possession of thethrone; but he was soon expelled by Timur-Khan, the son ofTimur-Uduck, and brother of Pulad- Khan, who reified fourteenmonths. Thebak, the brother of Pulad-khan, took the field againstTimur-khan, and killed him, but was unable to attain thesovereignty, as his brother Kerunhardin ascended the throne,which he only held for five months. Thebak again endeavoured todispossess his brother Kerunhardin, but was unable to effectuatehis purpose; for at this juncture, Ideku interposed, andconferred the sovereignty on Zegra, in the room of both. Zegra,however, continued khan only for nine months, when Mohammed-khan,son of the before-mentioned Timur-khan, and grandson of TimurUtluck, gained a pitched battle against Ideku and Zegra, in whichIdeku was made prisoner, and Zegra fled into a country calledDescht-Kiptscha. Mohammed was in his turn driven from the throneby Waroch; from whom Mohammed soon after retook his dominions. Hewas again driven out by Doblaberd, who only kept possession forthree days, when he was in his turn dethroned by Waroch. He againwas soon afterwards slain by Mohammed, who a third time attainedthe sovereign power. After these repeated revolutions, Zegra madeah unsuccessful attempt to recover the throne, in whichenterprize he lost his life.

[12] From the sequel he appears rather to have beenhis brother.--E.

On the death of Zegra, Schildtberger, and the other fourChristians who had been in his service, attached themselves toManustzusch, who had been counsellor to that prince. This personwent upon a journey to Kaffa in the Crimea, where six differentreligions are professed among the mixed inhabitants of thatpeninsula, a part of whom are Christians; After a residence thereof five months, Manustzusch crossed the straits of Zabake in thecountry called Zeckchas or Zikchia, where he sojourned forsix months. But the sultan of Turkey sent a message to thesovereign of that country, requesting that Manustzusch might notbe allowed to remain there any longer; and upon this he removedinto the land of Magrill[13].

[13] This is probably a corruption for Mangrill, orMingrelia.--E.

Schildtberger and his Christian companions, reflecting thatthey were now only three days journey from the Black Sea, formeda resolution to endeavour to return into their own country. Withthis view, having taken leave of Manustzusch, they went, to thecapital of the country of Bathan[14] whence they requestedto be conveyed across into Christendom, but were refused. Uponthis they rode four days journey along the coast, when at lengththey espied a ship at about eight Italian miles from the shore.They made signals to the people on board by means of fire, and aboat was sent to inquire their purpose; and having convinced theboats crew that they, were Christians, by rehearsing the Lordsprayer, Ave Maria, and creed, and these people having reported anaccount of them to the captain, of the ship, boats were sent backto bring them, on board. Having escaped many dangers, they landedat Constantinople, where they were well received by JohnPalaeologus, the Grecian emperor, who: sent them by sea to thecastle of Kilia, at the mouth of the Danube. Schildtberger hereparted from his companions, and went with some merchants toAkkerman[15] in Wallachia. From thence he went to SedhofSutschawa the capital of Moldavia, or the lesser Walachia. Henceto Lubick called otherwise Lwow or Lemberg, the capital ofWhite Russia, where he was detained by illness for three months.From that place he went to Cracow, the capital of Poland; and byBreslau in Silesia, Misnia, Eger, Ratisbon, and Freysingen, backto Munich, having been absent for more than thirty-two years.

[14] Forster explains this by substituting the namesof Bebian and Bedias as synonymous. No such name occurs in ourbest maps; but there is a place near the country of Mingrelia inGuria on the Black-Sea, named Batum, which may be hereindicated--E.

[15] This place is called in the text Weisseburgh,signifying the White Town, otherwise named Akkerman orAkkiermann, Asprecastro, Tschetatalba, and Belgorod.--Forst.

From the concluding sentence, Schildtberger, who began histravels, or rather captivity in 1394, must have returned toMunich about 1426 or 1427--E.

CHAPTER XVII.

Travels of the Ambassadors of Mirza ShahRokh, King of Persia, from Herat to Khanbalek in Katkay, in1419.[1]

[1] Astley IV. 621. Forst. Voy. and Disc.158.

INTRODUCTION.

This curious embassy, sent by Mirza Shah Rokh one of the sonsof Timur, or Timour the Great, better known in Europe by the nameof Tamerlane, travelled from Herat, in Persia, the residence oftheir sovereign, to Khanbalek, Cambalu, or Peking, the imperialcity of Kathay, Khatay, Kitay, or Northern China, where Yong-lo,or Ching-tsu, the third emperor of the race of Ming then kept hiscourt. Yong-lo began to reign, in 1404, and died in 1425, theyear in which the ambassadors returned to Persia, the race ofMing, a Chinese dynasty, was founded in 1368, fifty-one yearsbefore the present embassy, by Hoang-vu, who had expelled theMongol khans, the degenerate and enervated descendants of Gingisor Zengis. This journey was described by the famous Persianhistorian, Emir-Khond, or Emir-Khovand, usually known by the nameof Mirchond, in his performance, entitled, "Of the Wonders of theWorld." Nicolas Witsen[2], a learned burgomaster of Amsterdam,has inserted this curious journey, in his curious work, "Of Northand East Tartary," Having translated it for that purpose from thePersian into Dutch. The singularly excellent work of Witsen isextremely rare, and very seldom to be met with, as the authorsuppressed the work, from motives which are now unknown. Thelibrary of the university of Goettingen; formerly possessed acopy, which had belonged to the library of the Empress of Russia,and which was purchased at the sale of the effects of the late MrThunnman for eighty-six dollars. These travels are contained inthe fourth volume of the French collection by Thevenot; who saysthat it was written in Persian, in twelve pages, without notes orexplanation. He makes no mention of the translator, but probablyborrowed the article from Witsen, without acknowledgment. Thepresent edition is taken from Astleys collection, and is enrichedby several notes and elucidations, by Mr John Reinhold Forster;who, while he regrets the scarcity of Witsens valuable work inDutch, forgets to inform us of the existence of this tract inThevenot, or in the collection of Astley. This journey throwssome light on the interior part of Tartary, or Central Asia; andis therefore an important addition to our scanty knowledge ofthat little known and interesting country, the real storehouse ofnations, and the scourge, during many centuries, of all thesurrounding countries, from the sea of Japan to the Baltic, andfrom the Frozen Ocean, to the seas of China, India, Persia,Arabia, and Roum, or the Mediterranean.

[2] I suspect this learned Dutchman has beensometimes quoted in Latin, by the name ofCandidius.--E.

The present edition has been carefully corrected and enlarged,by collation with the abstract which Forster published from theDutch translation by Witsen. This journal gives many curiousremarks on the magnificence of the Chinese court, and respectingthe ceremonial observed in giving audience to ambassadors, whichstill continue nearly the same. The editor of Astley labours hardto explain away the want of notice In these travels, and in therepeated journeys of Marco Polo, respecting the great Chinesewall. But the only rational explanation of this omission, is theclear conclusion that it was not then built. We learn from thisnarrative, that the paper money of the former Mogul Khans ofKathay was no longer in use, and that silver money, under thesame denomination of Balishes, had been substituted in itsplace.

SECTION I.

The Journey of the Ambassadors from Herat to Khanbalek, andtheir reception at the Court of the Emperor of Kathay.

In the year of the Hejirah 822, or 1419 of the Christian era,the Sultan Mirza Shah Rokh, king of Persia, sent ambassadors fromHerat, his royal residence, to the emperor of Kathay, or China,of whom Shadi Khoja was the chief. At the same time, MirzaBaysangar, the son of Shah Rokh, sent Soltan Ahmet, and a painternamed Khoja Gayath Addin, to accompany his fathers ambassadors,giving orders to his servants to keep an exact journal of theirtravels, and to take notice of every thing that was remarkable inevery city and country they travelled through; carefully notingthe nature of the roads, the police, and customs of the people,and the magnificence and government of the various sovereigns.Leaving Herat[1] on the 11th of the month Zi'lkaa-deh[2], theambassadors arrived at Balkh on the 8th of Zi'lhejjeh, where theywere detained by the rains till the first of Moharram, in theyear 823 of the Hejira[3], or Thursday, 16th January 1420; onwhich day they departed from Balkh, and arrived in twenty-twodays journey at Samarkand. They here found Soltan Shars, andMehemmed Bakhshi, the ambassadors of Ulug-Beg[4], who had beensent to accompany them, together with all his Kathayans: And theambassadors of Khorassan, Badakshan, and from other princes,having here joined company, they all set out together with thoseof Kathay[5].

[1] The capital of Khorassan, or Corassan, in thenorth-east of Persia, then the residence of ShahRokh.--Astl.

[2] Or Zu'lkaadeh, as pronounced by the Persians,called Dhu'lkaddeh by the Arabians, which is the eleventh monthof the Mahometan year. As this year is lunar, the months runthrough all the seasons, for want of a properly regulatedkalendar, or a period like the Julian or Gregorian. To enable thereader to understand the journal, we give the Persian names ofthe months in their order: 1. Moharram; 2. Safar; 3.Rabiya-al-awal, or Prior; 4, Rabiya-al-Akher, or Latter; 5.Jomada-al- awal; 6. Jomada-al-akher; 7. Rajeb; 8. Shaaban; 9.Ramazan; 10. Shawal; 11. Zu'lkaadeh; 12.Zu'lhejjeh.--Astl.

[3] This year began on Thursday, 16th January,1420.--Astl.

[4] Ulug-Beg was the son and successor of Shah-Rokh,and was famous for his astronomical tables.--Astl.
The Kathayans of Ulug-Beg, here mentioned, were probably Chineseastronomers in the service of that prince, sent on the presentoccasion to ascertain and report the geographical circ*mstancesof the journey.--E.

[5] The text here is obscure, as appearing toindicate Kathayan ambassadors going to Kathay. They may have beenambassadors from Yong-lo to Shakh-Rokh, now on theirreturn.--E.

Having passed through the cities of Tashkend, Sayram, andAsh[6], they entered into the country of the Mongols[7] on theeleventh of Rabiya-al- akher, and learnt that thehorde was in great confusion, Awis-khan being at war withShir Mehemmed Aglan. These disturbances being settled, AmirKhudadad, who commanded in that country, came to inform them,that the ambassadors might proceed safely on their journey. Onthe 18th of Jomada- al-awal, they came to a place namedBilgotu[8], on the territories of Mehemmed-Beg, where they waitedfor the Dajis[9], and the retinue of the Shah of Badakshan. Aftertheir arrival, they passed the river Kenker[10] on thetwenty-second of Jomada-al-awal, and next day, they saw Mehemmed-Beg, prince of that horde, whose son, Soltan Shadi Karkan[11],was son-in- law to Shah Rokh, and a daughter of that prince hadmarried Mirza Mehemmed Juki[12]. On the twenty-eighth of thebefore named month, they entered the country of Ilduz[13], whichwas occupied by the tribe of Jel, and under the dominion of ShirBehram, or Scheir Begrahim; and though the sun was then in thesummer solstice, they were often astonished to find ice twoinches thick in this vast desert. On the eighth ofJomada-al-akher, they were alarmed, by receiving, news that theson of Ahmed Beg had plundered the Daji, who was ambassador fromAwis, or Oweys Khan; and they made every possible haste to passthrough the defiles of the mountains, notwithstanding of muchhail and rain falling at the time. At the end or the month, theyarrived at Tarkan[14], where there is a great temple, with a hugeidol, which the idolatrous inhabitants say is the image ofShakmonni, or Shamku. Departing from thence on the second ofRajeb, they came on the fifth to Karakoja.[l5] And certainKathayans came here on the tenth, who took a list of the names ofthe ambassadors and all their retinue. On the nineteenth theyarrived at the town of Ata-Sufi, where Kha Zadeh Taj'oddinresided, a person descended from the prophet, originally of thecity of Tormul, and son-in-law to Amir Fakr'oddin, chief of theMoslems in Kabul[16].

[6] Called Asperah by Forster.--E.

[7] From this description of the route, and theimplied division of empire, it would appear that Shah-Rokh ruledover a very ample portion of the vast conquests of Timur, havingunder has command the countries of Iran and Touran; or Persia,Chorassan, Balkh, Kharism, Great Bucharia, and Fergaana; evenincluding Samarkand, the imperial residence ofTimur.--E.

[8] Mr Forster calls this place Pielgutu, andexplains the name by the substitution of Palchas with amark of interrogation as doubtful. The geography of the East isrendered difficult and obscure, by the frequent recurrence ofnames in different languages, and by a lax orthography. PerhapsPielgutu or Palchas, may have been situated on the lake Balcash,otherwise named Palkati-nor, and Tengis--E.

[9] Otherwise Dagis and Dakgis--Astl.

[10] Called Lenger in Forster, who gives, assynonymous, Ab-lenger and Abi- longur; which merely repeat theoriginal name Lenger, with the prefix abi, which signifies wateror river. Of this river no mention is made on our maps; but, fromthe direction of the route, it must have crossed their waysomewhere between the Palkati-nor and Turfan, which is the nextstation mentioned.--E.

[11] Called Gurgu by Forster.--E.

[12] Fifth son of Shah-Rokh.--Astl.

[13] Perhaps the same place called Yulduz, and Yilduzby others, and supposed to be the Chialis of later authors, inLittle Bucharia. In the Jesuits maps there is a river calledCheldos, near the Ili, on which this town may havestood.--Astl.

[14] This is doubtless a mistake for Tarfan, orTurfan, in little Bucharia; the Arabic F and K differing only bya point. Astl. Turfan, Turkhan, or Farkhaan, is situated inTenduc or Uiguria, in Lat. 43° N. Long. 85°. SO. E. Thesnowy mountains crossed in such haste must have been the Alahtag.The cold desert of the tribe of Jel, was probably in the easternpart of Soongria; perhaps the Karang desert, north from Turfanand the Alak mountains.--E.

[15] This is supposed to be the same place withAramuth in other Journals; and to be named Oramchi in the Jesuitsmap--Astl. Called Kharadztah, Harasliar, Hara-cosa, and Asarlic,by Forster. Now named Asarleak on our best maps.--E.

[16] In Forsters edition, this sentence isdifferently expressed, as follows: "On the nineteenth they cameto a town called Naas, or Naar, near which several Zeijids, ordescendants of Mahomet, are settled, at a place namedTermed".--E.

On the twenty-second of Rajeb they arrived at Kabul[17], inwhich place Amir Fakr'oddin had built a fine mosque; near whichwas a temple of the idolaters, set round with images, and strangefigures of various sizes, and at the doors there were twogigantic statues that seemed to fight. Mengli Timur Bayri, ahandsome young man, was governor of this city. Departing thenceon the twenty-fifth of Rajeb, they entered on the desert of NomanCobi, where they only found water once in two days; and on thetwelfth of Shaaban, they saw lions, oxen, and other wild beasts;the oxen, named Gau Kottahs, are very large and strong, insomuchthat they are able to toss a man and horse into the air. Theirtails are remarkably long and hairy, and are in great estimationall over the East, where they are often carried on long poles, byway of ornament, and are likewise much employed for driving awayflies. On the fourteenth, they arrived at a place within twelvestages of Sekju[18], the first city in Kathay. From this time,the Kathayans came daily to meet them, erecting tents or huts,adorned with green boughs, in the desert for their accommodation,and plentifully supplied their tables with fowls, and variouskinds of flesh, fruits, fresh and dried, and other victuals, allserved on porcelain or china dishes, besides several kinds ofstrong liquors; and henceforwards they were as splendidly regaledin the desert as they afterwards were in the cities of Kathay.According to the list taken by the Kathayans, Amir Shadi Khoja,and Gaksheh, had 200 persons in their retinue; Soltan Ahmed andGayath-addin, 500; Argdak, sixty; Ardvan, fifty; and Taj'oddin,fifty; in all 860 persons; among whom were many merchants, whowere passed as belonging to the retinue of the ambassadors, andwho were, afterwards under the necessity of performing theservices which fell to their lot, according to the register. Intaking this list, the Kathayan officers made them swear thatthere were no other persons besides those named, and informedthem that they would be despised if they did not tell thetruth.

[17] This name Kabul is evidently a mistake forKamul, Khamul, Khamil, Kamyl, or Chamil; called Hami by theChinese.--Astl.

[18] This is certainly So-chew, near the entrance ofthe great wall in Shensi.--Astl. Called by ForsterKatasekt-schen, Sekt-scheu, Schel- scheu, orSu-tcheu.--E.

It is remarkable, that among the many viands and liquorssupplied to them, in the before-mentioned entertainment, therewas a pot of Chinese tea, which the Jesuit Trigaultimagined had only come into use in China of late years. Tea iscalled Tscha by the Chinese, and its use is very ancient,as the earlier of the two Mahometan travellers, who wrote in 851and 867, mention the use, by the Chinese in that early period, ofthe infusion of the leaves of a shrub called sah ortsha. Even at that time, the use of tea must have becomean article of constant and extensive consumption in China, as theemperor derived a large revenue from the tax on thatarticle[19].

[19] This commentary on tea is placed in the text ofForster, and is therefore here preserved in the same form, thoughno part of the original.--E.

On the sixteenth of the month Shaaban, they were informed thatthe Dankji, governor of the borders of Kathay, intended toentertain them that day with an imperial feast; and on theirarrival at his encampment, they found a square arpent[20] ofground inclosed with tents, the cords of which, fastened to pegsin the ground, were so interlaced together that there was noentrance into the inclosure but by four gates, which were left onpurpose. In the midst of this place, they had erected a great andvery high awning of cloth, supported on wooden pillars; at oneend of which was an imperial canopy of state, erected on tworichly varnished pillars, between which stood a great chair ofstate as if for the emperor, and other seats on both sides. Theambassadors were placed on the left hand of the imperial throne,arid the Kathayan officers on the right. Before each ambassadorthere were two tables, one of which was covered with variousmeats and fruits, and the other with cakes and delicate bread,ornamented with festoons of silk and paper. The other personspresent had only one table to each. At the opposite end of thisgreat banqueting tent, there stood a buffet or side-board, fullof vessels of china and of silver, for serving the liquors.During the entertainment, they were regaled by a band of music,and a number of young persons, in strange dresses, performedvarious tricks for their amusem*nt. They were likewise muchamused by the performance of a comedy, the actors of which woremasks representing the faces of animals; and a child, inclosed inthe body of an artificial stork, walked about and performed avariety of surprising motions. In short, nothing could be moremagnificent.

[20] An arpent is a French measure nearly one and ahalf of which are equal to an English acre.--Astl.

Next day, being the seventeenth of Shaaban, they continuedtheir journey through the desert, and arrived in a few days at akaraul[21] or strong fortress, in the mountains, which is builtacross the road in a pass or defile, so that travellers mustnecessarily enter by one gate and pass through the other. Herethe ambassadors and all the members of their retinues werecarefully numbered, and a new list made of all their names. Fromthe karaul they went to Sekju or So-chew[22], where they werelodged in a large public building over the gate of the city; inwhich, as in all their other lodgings, they were amply providedwith every necessary and convenience, as provisions, beds, andhorses; and even the servants had mattresses and coverletsallowed for their beds. So-chew is a large and strong city, quitesquare, in the entrance into Kathay. It has sixteen marketplaces, each fifty cubits square, which are always kept clean. Inthese there are several covered halls or galleries, having shopson both sides; and a handsome hall of entrance, adorned withpictures. There are hogs kept in every house, and the butchershang their pork in the shambles along with the mutton[23]. Thecity wall is flanked with towers at every twenty paces distance;and there is a gate in the middle of each side, from each ofwhich one may see the opposite gate, as the streets pass straightthrough the middle of the city, dividing it into four quarters.Over each gate there is a pavilion of two stories, the roof ofwhich is tiled with porcelain, and is shaped like an asses back,or penthouse, according to the fashion of Kathay, which islikewise followed in Mazanderan. Each of the temples in thisplace occupy nearly ten arpents of ground, and all are very neat,with their brick pavements polished like glass. At the gatesthere stand a number of fine youths, who, after regalingstrangers, show them the temples.

[21] This Persian term Karawl or Karawul, is alsointroduced into the Tartarian language, from which it has beenadopted into Russian, in which language a guard or outpost istermed a Karaul.--Forst.
It seems more probable that the Tartar conquerors had introducedtheir own military term into the languages of subjugated Persia,and tributary Russia.--E.

[22] In the description of this route by Forster, hebrings the ambassadors to Su-tchew before their arrival at theKaraul, and interposes a desert of several days journey betweenthese two places.--E.

[23] This seemingly trifling circ*mstance was matterof great surprize and scandal to the Mahometans, who considerhogs as unclean animals, and to whom pork is a forbiddenfood.--Astl.

From So-chew it is ninety-five days journey to Cambalu, orKhanbalek, where the emperor resides, the whole way leading,through a populous country, insomuch that travellers always lodgeat night in a large town. Throughout the whole way there are manystructures named Kargu, and Kidifu. The former are a species ofcorps-de-garde, which are sixty cubits high, and are built withinsight of each other, having always persons on guard, who arerelieved every ten days. These are intended to communicate alarmsspeedily to the seat of government, which they do by means offires; and intelligence can be sent, in this manner, in the spaceof a day and a night, from the distance of three monthsjourney[24]. The Kidifus are a kind of post-houses, which arebuilt at ten merres[25] from each other, having fixedestablishments of people, with houses to live in, and ground tocultivate for their support; and all letters to the imperial cityare sent by couriers from one to another. From Sakju, or So-chew,to Kamju[26], there are nine stages or days journey, and thedankji who resides in Kan-chew is superior to all the othergovernors on the frontiers. At each stage the ambassadors werefurnished with 450 horses, mules, and asses, and fifty-sixchariots or waggons. The servants who tended the horses werecalled Ba-fu; the muleteers, who had charge of the mulesand the asses, Lu-fu; and the men who drew the chariots,Jip-fu. These chariots were each drawn by twelve young menwith cords on their shoulders, and they dragged through alldifficulties from one lodging to another, the Ba-fu alwaysrunning before as guides. At all the lodging places, where theambassadors and their retinue stopped nightly, provisions werealways found in abundance. At every city the ambassadors werefeasted in a hall set apart for that special purpose, calledRasun, in each of which there stood an imperial throneunder a canopy, with curtains at the sides, the throne alwaysfacing towards the capital of the empire. At the foot of thethrone there always was a great carpet, on which the ambassadorssat, having their people ranked in regular rows behind them, likethe Moslems at their prayers. When all were properly arranged, aguard beside the throne gave a signal, by calling out aloud threetimes; on which all the Kathayan officers bowed their heads tothe ground towards the throne, and obliged the ambassadors tomake a similar reverence; after which every one sate down to hisappointed table.

[24] It is singular how very nearly this arrangementresembles the supposed modern invention of a chain oftelegraphs.--E.

[25] Six merres make a pharasang, or Persian league,which is equal to four English miles, and 868 feet. One merre istherefore equal to 1221 yards, and each post station of tenmerres is equal to 12,213 yards, or almost seven Englishmiles.--Astl.

[26] Otherwise Kamgiou or Kan-chew, the Kampion orKainpiou of Marco Polo; which is a city of Shen-si, near thegreat wall and the desert.--Astl.

In Forsters account of this journey, the ambassadors arrivedfrom the Karaul, or fortified pass, at Natschieu, Nang-tsiew, orNaa-tsieu; after which, they are said to have arrived atKham-tcheou, the Kan- chew of the text.--E.

On the twenty-fifth of Ramazan, the dankji, or governor ofKan-chew invited the ambassadors to a feast, intimating that theywere to consider it as a banquet given them by the emperor; butas it was the fast of the Moslems, the ambassadors sent anapology, yet he sent them all the victuals which had beenprepared for the entertainment. In Kanchew they saw a temple,each side of which extended 500 kes or cubits, having inthe middle of it an idol fifty feet in length, lying as ifasleep. The hands and feet of this gigantic idol were nine feetlong, and the head was twenty-one feet round. There were numbersof smaller idols, each a cubit high, behind this large one andabove his head, in such natural attitudes that they seemed alive.The great idol was gilt all over, having one hand under his head,and the other stretched down along his thigh. This idol wascalled Samonifu, and vast numbers of people wereconstantly prostrating themselves before him. The walls were alsoadorned with many figures. All round the great temple, there werenumerous small temples, like the chambers in caravanseras, havingcurtains of tapestry or brocade, gilded easy chairs and stools,chandeliers, and vessels, for ornament. There were ten othertemples in the city of Kan-chew like the former, and a towerhaving eight fronts, twenty cubits in circumference, and fifteenstories high. Each story was twelve cubits high, so that thewhole tower was 180 cubits in height. In every story was achamber finely varnished, and a gallery round, embellished withpaintings. One of these paintings represented the emperor ofKathay sitting among his courtiers, and with boys and girls oneither hand. This structure is called Teherki felek by theMoslems, and resembles a kiosk. At the bottom there were thefigures of giants, which seemed to carry the whole tower on theirbacks. The whole was constructed of wood, richly gilded andvarnished, and so exquisitely polished, that it seemed ofburnished gold. In a vault under the edifice, there is an ironaxis resting on a plate of iron, and reaching from the bottom tothe top of the tower: and the whole was so ingeniously contrived,that it could easily be turned round on this axis, in sosurprizing a manner, that all the smiths, carpenters, andpainters of the world ought to go there, to learn the secrets oftheir respective trades[27].

[27] The description given in the text of thisChinese pagoda has much the air of a fiction; yet we can hardlyconceive the author would venture to report to Shah-Rokh whatmust have been contradicted by his ambassadors, iffalse.--Astl.

Before the ambassadors left Kan-chew, they were furnished withhorses and carriages, which they returned here in their way back.In this place also, they consigned the presents which wereintended for the emperor, except a lion, which they carried alongwith them, to the imperial court. In proportion as theyapproached towards the capital, the Kathayan magnificence alwaysincreased. Every evening they arrived at a Yam[28] orlodging, and once every week at a city. On the fourth of themonth Shawal they reached the river Karamuran[29], which is aslarge as the Jihon or Amu. Across this river there is a bridge oftwenty-six boats, laid over with planks, and kept together byiron hooks and chains, which are fastened to iron pillars on eachbank, as thick as a mans thigh, so that the whole is keptperfectly firm and even. On crossing this river they came to agreat city, where the ambassadors were more splendidly, feastedthat in any other place; and here they saw a more magnificentidol temple than any of the former. They took notice also ofthree public stews, full of very beautiful harlots; and as thewomen here are handsomer than any other in Kathay, this place hasthe name of Rosnabaad, or the City of Beauty. Afterpassing through several other cities, they arrived on the twelfthof the month Zu'lkaadeh, at another river[30] twice as large asthe Jihon, which they passed over in boats. Continuing theirjourney, and crossing over several rivers, some in boats andothers by means of bridges, they arrived, on the twenty-seventhof the last mentioned month, at the great and populous city ofSadin-fu[31]. In one of the temples of this city therestands a gilded brass image fifty cubits high, called theimage with a thousand hands, for such is the number withwhich this idol is furnished, and on the palm of each there is aneye. The feet of this idol are near ten cubits long. Round thisidol there are several others of different heights, placed inchambers or niches, some reaching only as high as the ankle ofthe great one, others to the knee, and others again as high asthe breast. It is reckoned that this prodigious work required100,000 loads of brass. The top of the temple is exquisitelyfinished, and terminates in an open hall. It is surrounded byeight mounts or eminences, which may be ascended both on theoutside and the inside; and these have several grottos, the wallsof which are adorned with various paintings, representingpriests, idols, hermits, tigers, leopards, serpents, and trees.These, with the idols, mountains, and arches, seem all to becomposed of plaster. Around this great temple there are many finebuildings, and among these a turning tower, similar to that ofKan-chew, but larger and finer.

[28] This is called Lam in the French of Thevenot,and is the same with the Lamb of Marco Polo.--Astl.

[29] This is the Cara-moran or Whang-ho, which theycrossed a second time between Shen-si and Shan-si, where it ismuch larger than at Lan-chew, the place probably alluded to inthis part of the text.--Astl.
In the edition, by Forster, this river is named Abi Daraan, orthe Daraan, afterwards Kara-raan; but is obviously theKara-moran, Whang- ho, or Hoang-ho.--E.

[30] This other river, certainly is the sameKara-moran, passed again at a different part of theirroute.--Astl.

[31] This must have been some city in the province ofPe-che-li, or near its borders in Shan-si; but no such name asthat of the text is to be found in any of the maps ofChina.--Astl.

In Forsters edition, this place is named Chien-dien-puhr,perhaps Tchin-teuen-pou, a city at some distance to the west ofthe Hoan-ho river. The route is not distinctly indicated in thetext; but seems to have been from Soutcheo, at the N.W. extremityof Chensi, in lat. 40° N. following a S. E. direction to theHoan-ho, somewhere about Yung- nam, in lat. 37° N. long.104° E.; and Yung-nam may have been the fine city which thePersians named Rosna-baad, or the Habitation of Beauty.--E.

Continuing their journey, at the rate of four or fivepharasangs each day[32], the ambassadors arrived before day-breakof the eighth of Zu'lhajieh, at the imperial city ofKhanbalik[33], or Pekin. This city is so great that each side isa pharasang in length, or about four and a quarter English miles.But at this time 100,000 houses within its walls lay in ruins.The ambassadors and their retinue were conducted on foot along acauseway 700 feet long, to the palace gate, where there stoodfive elephants on either side. On passing this outward gate, theyentered a very beautiful paved court of great extent, where theyfound 100,000 men waiting at the emperors gate, although it wasnot yet day. Facing this court there was a great kiosk orpavilion, the basis of which was thirty cubits high, on whichstood pillars fifty cubits high, supporting a gallery sixtycubits long and forty cubits wide. This pavilion had three gates,the middle one being reserved for the emperor, and that on eachside was smaller. Above this kiosk, and over the right and leftgates, was a kurkeh, or great drum; and a bell hung overthe middle gate, attended by two persons, to give notice of theappearance of the emperor on his throne. They reckoned that near300,000 persons were assembled before the palace, among whom were2000 musicians, who sung hymns for the prosperity of the emperor.Two thousand men, armed with halberts, batons, darts, arrows,lances, swords, and maces, had enough of business in keeping thecrowd in order. Others held fans and umbrellas. Around this courtthere were many apartments, and it was surrounded by highporticos closed with grates, and containing sofas. When dayappeared, the drums, trumpets, flutes, and hautboys, began tosound, and the great bell tolled; at which the great gates werethrown open, and the people crowded in to see the emperor. Onpassing from the first court into the second, the ambassadorsfound a larger and more magnificent pavilion than the former, onwhich was a raised platform, or sofa, of a triangular form, fourcubits high, covered with yellow satin, and sumptuously adornedwith gildings and paintings, representing the Simorg[34],or Phoenix, which the Kathayans call the royal bird. On this sofawas a seat or throne of massy gold, and on both sides stood ranksof officers of different orders, some commanders of 10,000 men,some of a 1000, and others of 100 men. Each of these held atablet in his hand, a cubit long and a quarter broad, on whichthey all continued to look with much gravity, without attendingto any thing around them; and behind these, stood an infinitenumber of guards, all in profound silence. At length the emperormade his appearance from an inner apartment, and ascended thethrone by nine steps of silver. The emperor was a man of middlestature, and his beard consisted of 200 or 300 long hairs, whichdescended from his chin upon his breast. On each side of thethrone there stood two very beautiful maidens, having their facesand necks bare, with their hair tied on the top of their heads,and large pearls in their ears. Each of these held paper and apen in their hands, and wrote down with great attention whateverwas spoken by the emperor; and when he retires, they present himwith the papers, to see if he has any alterations to make in hisorders. These are afterwards carried to the Diwan, ortribunal of state, that they may be carried into execution.

[32] About seventeen or twenty-one English miles, ornineteen miles on the average.--E.

[33] This is the same with the Khambalu of Polo. Onename signifies the palace of the Khan, the other the city of theKhan.--Astl.

[34] This is the Fong-whang, or fabulous bird of theChinese. The Simorg- Anka, is supposed among the Persians to haveexisted among the Preadamites, and to have assisted Solomon inhis wars.--Astl.

When the emperor was seated on his throne, the sevenambassadors were brought forwards, facing the emperor, and at thesame time a great number of criminals were presented. There wereseven hundred of these, some of whom were fastened by the neck,others having their heads and hands inclosed by a board, sixsometimes fastened thus to one board. Each criminal was attendedby a keeper, who held his prisoner by the hair: and all thuswaited the imperial sentence. Most of these were remanded toprison, and only a few were condemned to die, which power residessolely in the emperor. All the governors of this vast empire,however distant from court, send all malefactors to Khanbalik, toappear in presence of the emperor. Each persons crime is writtenon one end of the board which he carries about his neck; and thecrimes against religion are the most severely punished of all.Great care is taken to examine into all the facts on theseoccasions, insomuch that the emperor holds council twelve severaltimes before he condemns any one to death. Hence a person who hasbeen condemned in eleven successive councils, is sometimesacquitted in the twelfth, which is always held in presence of theemperor, who never condemns any but those he cannot save. Whenthe criminals were dismissed, the ambassadors were led by anofficer within fifteen cubits of the throne; and this officer, onhis knees, read out of a paper the purport of their embassy;adding that they had brought rarities as presents to his majesty,and were come to knock their heads against the ground before him.Then the Kadhi Mulana Haji Yusof, a commander of tenthousand, who was a favourite of the emperor and one of histwelve councillors, approached to the ambassadors, with someMoslems who spoke the Persian language, and ordered them to fallon their knees and knock their ground with their foreheads; butthey only bowed their heads three times. Then they delivered theletters of Shah Rokh and the other princes, wrapped up in yellowsatin, to Kadhi Mulana, who gave them into the hands of a khojaof the palace at the foot of the throne, and he presented them tothe emperor. He took them into his own hands, opened them andlooked at them, and delivered them back to the khoja, whodescended from the throne, and sat down on a seat at the foot ofthe steps. At the same time were brought out three thousandvestments of fine stufis, and two thousand coarse, such as arethe usual clothing of the imperial children and household[35].The emperor then commanded the ambassadors to draw near, andbeing on their knees, he inquired after the health of Shah Rokh,and put many other questions to them, all of which they answered.He then ordered them to rise, and go eat, saying that they hadcome a far journey. From thence the ambassadors were conductedback to the first court, where they were feasted in a similarmanner as at other times already mentioned.

[35] The text is here abrupt and inconclusive: Thesevestments were probably presented to the ambassadors and theirsuite.--E.

When this entertainment was finished, they were conducted totheir lodgings, in which the principal chamber was furnished witha large sofa or raised platform, laid with fine silk cushions, agreat basin, and a pan for fire. On the right and left of this,there were other chambers, with beds, silk cushions, and footcarpets or fine mats, for lodging the ambassadors separately.Each person had a kettle, a dish, a spoon, and a table. Everyday, for six persons, there were allowed a sheep, a goose, andtwo fowls; and to each person two measures of flour, a large dishof rice, two great basins full of things preserved with sugar, apot of honey, some garlic, onions, salt, several sorts of herbs,a bottle of dirapum[36], and a basin of walnuts, filberts,chesnuts, and other dried fruits. They were likewise attendedfrom morning till night by a number of handsome servants.

[36] What this may have been does not appear; it maypossibly have been arrack, or the wine made of rice and spices,which is frequently mentioned in the travels of MarcoPolo.--E.

SECTION II.

The several Audiences of the Ambassadors, theirEntertainments, Presents, and Return.

On the ninth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, the Sekjin, orofficer belonging to the court who had charge of the ambassadors,came to their lodgings before day, and raised them from theirbeds, saying that the emperor meant to feast them that day. Hebrought them to the palace on horses which were sent for thepurpose, and placed them in the outer court, where two hundredthousand persons were in attendance. As soon as the sun was up,they were led to the foot of the throne, where they saluted theemperor, by bowing their heads to the ground five several times.At length the emperor descended from the throne, and theambassadors were led back to the outer court, where they wereseparated for a while, that they might perform the deeds ofnecessity; being told that no person could be allowed to stir outon any pretence during the continuance of the feast. After this,they were led through the first and second courts, and thenceinto a third, which was entirely open, and paved with finefreestone. In the front of this court there was a great hallsixty cubits long, having chambers over it; and in the hall was agreat sofa, higher than a man, which was ascended by three silverstairs, one in front, and the others at the two sides. In thisplace there stood two khojas of the palace, having a kind ofpasteboard covers on their mouths, and fastened to their ears.Upon the great sofa or platform, there was a smaller one in formof a couch, having pillows and cushions for the feet; and on eachside there were pans for fire, and perfuming pans. This smallersofa was of wood, beautifully gilded, and looking quite fresh,though sixty years old, and every thing was finely varnished. Themost eminent of the Dakjis stood on each side of the throne,armed, and behind them were the soldiers of the imperial guard,with naked sabres. The ambassadors were placed on the left hand,as the most honourable station. Three tables were placed beforeeach of the Amirs and other most distinguished persons,while others had only two, and the more ordinary persons but one;and there were at least a thousand tables at thisentertainment.

Before the throne, near a window of the hall, there was agreat kurkeh or drum, on a raised stage, attended by two men, andnear it a great band of musicians. Part of the hall was dividedoff by curtains which came close to the throne, that the ladiesbelonging to the palace might see the company without being seen.After all the victuals and liquors were brought in and properlydistributed, two khojas withdrew, the curtains which covered adoor behind the throne, and the emperor came forth, amid thesound of many instruments of music, and took his seat under acanopy of yellow satin, ornamented with four dragons. After theambassadors had made five prostrations, they sat down to table,and were treated as at other times. During the entertainment,many comic tricks were acted for the amusem*nt of the emperor andthe company. The first performers that appeared were painted withwhite and red, like girls, and dressed in gold brocade, holdingnosegays of artificial flowers. After this, a man lay down on hisback, as if asleep, holding his feet raised up in the air; thenanother person held several thick canes in his hands, sevencubits long, placing the other ends between his legs, on which ayouth of ten or twelve years of age mounted, with surprisingagility, and performed several tricks at the top. At last thecanes slipped away from under him, and every person thought hemust have fallen to the ground and been dashed to pieces; but thepretended sleeper instantly started up and caught him in the air.There was one musician who played tunes after the twelvedifferent modes of the Kathayans. Two men played the same airtogether, each having one hand on his own instrument, and theother on that of his companion. During this entertainment,several thousand birds of different kinds flew about the court ofthe palace, and lighted among the people, to eat up what theycould find scattered on the ground, without appearing to be inthe least scared at the multitude. During the five months thatthe ambassadors remained at Khanbalik, they were regaled atseveral other banquets, where plays were acted, much surpassingthat now mentioned.

On the seventeenth of the month Zu'lhajjeh, all the criminalswere carried to be punished according to the nature of theiroffences, and as prescribed by the laws. The twenty-fifth ofMoharram, Mulana Kadhi Yusof sent to acquaint the ambassadorsthat next day, being the first of the new year, according to thereckoning of the Kathayans, the emperor was to go to his newpalace, and that no person must wear white, as that was the dressof mourning in this country. On the twenty-eighth, at midnight,the Sekjin came to conduct them to the new palace, which had beennineteen years building, and was only newly finished. Everyperson had his house or shop illuminated, with torches, lanterns,candles, and lamps, so that it appeared as light as noon-day. Atthe palace they found an hundred thousand people, who had comefrom all parts of Kathay, the countries of Tachin and Machin,Kalmak, Kabul, Karakoja, Jurga, and the sea coasts. This day theambassadors tables were set out of the hall where the thronestood, while those of the Amirs, or great officers andlords of the court were within; and there were near two hundredthousand armed men, carrying umbrellas and bucklers. This feastlasted till the afternoon, and among the music were many songs inpraise of the new palace. To give some idea of this superbstructure, it may be mentioned that, from the gate of the hall tothe first inclosure, measured 1925 paces. On each side arebuildings and gardens one within another. The edifices were offreestone, porcelain, or marble, so delicately put together thatthey seemed inchased. There are many hundred cubits of pavement,the stones of which are so even and well joined, that they lookedlike the checkered ruling in books. Nothing in other countriescan equal the Kathayans in masonry, joiner-work, making relievosor raised figures in plaster, and in painting.

The ambassadors were called early to audience, on the ninth ofthe month Safar; the emperor having then come out from aretirement of eight days; for it is his custom to retire everyyear for some days, during which he eats no kind of victuals andabstains from going near his ladies, neither does he, during allthat time, see or converse with any one. In this retirement, theemperor has no picture or idol of any of his gods; as during thisperiod, all his devotions are addressed solely to the GOD ofHeaven. On this occasion, the imperial elephants were all adornedin a style of magnificence, which is quite inexpressible; many ofthem having silver seats, like litters, on their backs, adornedwith standards of seven different colours, and the seats werefilled with armed men; fifty of the elephants carried theimperial musicians. This grand procession of elephants waspreceded, or followed, by at least 50,000 persons, who allpreserved the most exact order, and the most profound silence. Inall this pomp and splendour, the emperor was conducted from, theplace of his religious retirement to the female apartments of thepalace. The court astrologers had predicted that the palace ofthe emperor was this year to suffer by fire, on which account, asolemnity, accompanied by splendid fireworks and illuminations,was exhibited during seven days. On this occasion, an artificialmount was erected in the middle of the imperial court, coveredall over with branches of cypress, and planted with 100,000torches; by means of little artificial mice, made of bitumen orwild fire, which ran along a number of ropes, fixed for thepurpose, these torches were all lighted up in a moment, forming awonderful blaze of lights from the bottom of the mountain to thetop; and many other lights appeared all over the city. During allthe seven days of this festival, no criminals were sought after;the emperor discharged all debtors under arrest for debt, and setfree all persons in prison for crimes, except murderers, and hedistributed large presents. All this was notified on thethirteenth of the month Safer, by an imperial edict orproclamation, the emperor being seated on his throne, in thegrand kiosk, or pavilion of the first court, surrounded bymore than 100,000 persons; and in this edict, the emperornotified that he would send no ambassadors to any country duringthree years. After this edict had been read aloud by threeofficers of the court, who stood on a bench before the emperor,it was conveyed down from the pavilion into the court below, bymeans of rings fastened to yellow silk cords; and, beingreverently placed on a board with a golden border, it was carriedto the city, followed by music, and accompanied by a multitude ofthe people. After the conclusion of this ceremony, the emperorleft the pavilion, and the ambassadors were feasted, as at othertimes.

On the first of the month Rabiya-al-awal, the ambassadors wereagain called to court before the emperor, who had severalShankars[1] brought in, which he said he meant to give to thosewho had presented him with good horses; and at this time, hecaused three to be given to each of the ambassadors of the MirzaUlug-Beg, Mirza Baysangar, and Sultan Shah-Rokh. Next day he sentfor them again; when, addressing himself to Arjak, the ambassadorof Mirza Siurgatmish, he said, "I have no Shankar to give you;and even if I had, I should not give you any, lest it should betaken from you, as was done from Ardeshir, a former ambassadorfrom your, master." To this Arjak made answer: "If your majestywill do me that honour, I will engage my word that no personshall take it from me." To this the emperor replied: "On thatcondition I will give you two, which I have ordered to be broughtfor that purpose." On the eighth day of the month, theambassadors of Soltan Shah, and Bakshi Malek were sent for, toreceive the Shankish, or imperial present. The first receivedeight balish of silver[2], thirty furred imperialvestments, twenty-four under petticoats[3], two horses, one ofwhich was provided with furniture, 100 bundles of cane arrows,twenty-five great porcelain vases, and 5000 ***[4]. Bakshi Malekhad as much, bating one balish of silver; the women belonging tothe ambassadors had no silver given them, but they each receivedhalf the quantity of stufis that had been given to their lords.On the thirteenth of the same month, the ambassadors were sentfor to court, when the emperor said to them: "I am going to hunt;take your shankars, therefore, which fly well, and divertyourselves; but the horses you brought me are good for nothing."About this time, the emperors son returned from the country ofNemray, and the ambassadors went to pay their complimentsto him in his particular court, to the east of the imperialpalace, where they found him seated in state, amid hisattendants, and having his table served in the same manner withthat of the emperor.

[1] Shankars, Shonkers, or Shongars, are birds ofprey, famous among the Tartars, and may probably have been themost esteemed species of falcon, and which are said to have beenwhite.--Astl.

[2] These silver balishes seem to have come inplace of the paper money of the emperors of the race of Zingis,formerly mentioned; but its value is nowheredescribed.--E.

[3] This surely must be an error for undergarments--E.

[4] In Forsters account of these travels, the blankin the text is filled up with Dzjau, or Tzjau; which he supposesto have been tea, and that the numbers refer to certain Chineseweights or packages of that commodity. Forster adds, that smallpieces of tin were given to the ambassadors, to some twenty-four,and to others as far as seventy pieces; and he says that Witsenleft many of the articles enumerated in the originaluntranslated, as not understanding theterms.--Forst.

On the first of the month Rabiya-al-akher, the ambassadorsreceived notice to go to meet the emperor, who was then on hisreturn from hunting; and, on getting on horseback before day forthat purpose, they found Mulana Kazi Yusof waiting for them atthe door of their hotel, in great dejection. Inquiring the cause,he told them privately that the emperor had been thrown inhunting from the horse they had presented him from Shah Rokh, andhad given orders that they should be carried in chains to certaincities in the east of Kathay. The ambassadors were much afflictedat this news, and continued their journey for about twenty milesto the emperors camp. At this place, the Kathayans had in onenight inclosed a plot of ground 500 paces square, with walls tenfeet high. This wall was composed of earth, hard pressed downbetween two planks, as in a mould, leaving two gates; and theplace whence the earth was dug, served for a ditch. There werestrong guards posted at both of the gates, and other soldiersposted along the ditch. Within this outer inclosure, there weretwo others, each twenty-five cubits high, formed of yellow satin,supported upon square posts and all set round with tents ofyellow satin. When the ambassadors were arrived within 500 pacesof the imperial quarters, Mulana. Cazi Yusof desired them toalight, and wait for the emperor, while he went forwards to thepresence. The emperor was on the point of giving orders forhaving the ambassadors arrested, when Lidaji andJandaji, officers named Setalid and Jik-fu,in the Kathayan or Chinese language, who stood before theemperor, and Kazi Yusof, fell prostrate before him, entreatinghim not to proceed to that extremity, as it might have very badconsequences to put them to death, and would give occasion forthe world to say that the emperor had violated the law of nationsin the persons of these ambassadors. The emperor at lengthyielded to their reasons and entreaties, and Kazi Yusof went withgreat joy to let them know that they were pardoned. The emperoreven condescended to send them victuals; but, being mixed withpork, they could not eat of it, on account of their religion.

Afterwards, the emperor approached, mounted on a great blackhorse, with white feet, richly caparisoned with brocade housings,which had been sent to him by Mirza Uleg Beg, and haying twoattendants on each side at the saddle-bow. He was dressed in avest of rich gold brocade on a red ground, and had his beardinclosed in a bag of black satin. The emperor marched slowlyforwards, followed by his women, who were carried by men in sevencovered litters, after whom came a large covered litter, carriedby seventy men. A body of horse marched in squadrons before theemperor, each squadron twenty paces asunder, and the cavalcadereached all the way to the city. The emperor rode in the middle,attended by ten Dajis, or governors of provinces, and by thethree lords who had so warmly pled in flavour of the ambassadors.When the emperor drew near, Kazi Jusof, one of these friendlylords, came up and ordered the ambassadors to prostratethemselves; and when they had done so, the emperor ordered themto arise and mount their horses, and to accompany him. Thenturning to them, he thus addressed Shadi Khoja, one of theambassadors: "The presents, rarities, horses, and wild beastswhich are sent to me in future must be better chosen, in order topreserve and increase the amity which I have for your princes. Atthe hunt, I mounted the horse which you presented me; but he isso vicious, and I am so old, that he threw me, by which I waswounded, and have received a contusion on my head, which gave megreat anguish; but by laying much gold on the place, the pain isassuaged." Upon this, Shadi Khoja said, that it was the horse onwhich the great Amir Timid Karkan[5] used to ride; and that ShahRokh, who kept him as a rarity, had sent him to the emperor, asthe most valuable horse in all his dominion. Being satisfied withthis apology, the emperor called for a shaker, which he let flyat a crane; but on the bird returning, without seizing his prey,the emperor gave it three strokes on the head. He then alightedfrom his horse, and sat down in a chair, resting his feet onanother, and gave a shaker to Soltan Shah, and another to SoltanAhmed, but none to Shadi Khoja. After this he mounted his horse,and as he approached towards the city, was received by vastcrowds of people with a thousand acclamations.

[5] This is the famous Timur-Beg, or Tamerlane theGreat.--Astl.

On the fourth of the before named month, the ambassadors werebrought to court to receive their presents from the emperor; whowas seated on his throne, and caused tables to be set before him,on which the presents were displayed. These were much of the samenature with those already mentioned, which were given to SoltanShah, and Bakshi Malek. Sometime afterwards, the most beloved ofthe emperor's wives died, and her death was made public on theeighth day of the month Jomada-al-awake, the next day beingappointed for her interment. The ladies belonging to the imperialfamily are buried, on a certain mountain, on which all the horsesthat belonged to them are turned out to graze at liberty for therest of their lives. At the same time, several maidens and Khojasof the palace, who had belonged to the retinue of the deceased,are placed in attendance on the grave, having provisions allowedthem to subsist upon for live years, perhaps more; and when theirvictuals are expended, they are permitted to die of famine. Buton the ensuing night, the new palace took fire, not withoutsuspicion of the astrologers haying a hand in it. By thismisfortune, the principal apartment, which was eighty cubitslong, and thirty cubits broad, adorned with pillars, paintedblue, and richly varnished, so large that three men could hardlygrasp them, was entirely consumed. From thence, the flamescommunicated to a kiosk or gallery of twenty fathoms, and to theapartment of the ladies, which was still more magnificent. Bythis fire, 250 houses were destroyed, and several men and womenlost their lives[6]. The emperor and his Amirs did notconsider that this chastisem*nt fell upon them for beinginfidels. On the contrary, the emperor went to an idol temple[7],where he said on his knees, "The GOD of Heaven is angry with me,and therefore hath burned my palace. Yet have I done no evil; forI have neither offended my father nor my mother, nor can I becharged with the exercise of any tyranny on my people."

[6] In the abstract of these travels, as given byForster, this fire is said to have been caused bylightning.--E.

[7] It is to be remarked, that the author of thesetravels was a Mahometan. The circ*mstances of the idol temple,says the editor of Astleys Collection, seems malicious; as, inhis opinion, there are no images in the imperial temples ofPe-king. I suspect the editor is mistaken; for however stronglythe philosophical sect of Confucius may be convinced of theabsurdity of idolatry, the religion of Fo is as grosslyidolatrous as any on the face of the earth; and it is to benoticed, that the dynasty then reigning in China wasnative.--E.

The emperor was so deeply affected by these untowardcirc*mstances, that he fell sick, and the prince his son assumedthe administration of the government, and gave the ambassadors anaudience of leave[8]; after which, they received no farthersubsistence from the court, till their departure. They leftKham-balik on the fifteenth of the month Jomada-al-awal,accompanied by certain dajis from the court; and they were lodgedand treated with all necessaries on their return, in the samemanner as they had been on their journey to court. They arrivedon the first of Rajeb at the city of Nikian[9], where themagistrates came out to meet them, but did not search theirbaggage, as is customary there, as they had an express order fromthe emperor to the contrary. On the day after their arrival atthat place, they were magnificently feasted. On the fifth ofShaaban, thirty-five days afterwards, they reached the riverKaramuran, Whang-ho, or Hoang-ho; and on the twenty-fifth of thatmonth arrived at Kamju[10], where they had left their servants,and heavy baggage; where every thing that they had committed tothe custody of the Kathayan officers, when on their journey tothe capital, was faithfully restored. After remainingseventy-five days in this place, they resumed their journey, andcame soon afterwards to Nang-tschieu, or Nang-chew[11]. At thisplace, or rather at Sa-chew, they met with ambassadors fromIspahan and Shiras in Persia, on their way to Khambalik, who toldthem that they had met with many difficulties on theirjourney.

[8] The emperor died in the same year; but after thedeparture of the ambassadors.--Astl.

[9] No such name can be found among the cities ofPe-che-li or Shan-si --Astl.
In the abstract given by Forster, this place is called Sekan orSegaan; named in the maps Sigan-fou, or more properlySi-Ngan-Fou.--E.

[10] Or Kan-chew, in the province of Shen-si;otherwise called Kam-tsiu, or Kan-tcheou, on the riverEtchine.--Forst.

[11] This name is probably erroneously substitutedfor Sou-chew; as that is the regular station for retracing theirformer journey, which the text distinctly indicates to have beenthe case hitherto.--E.

As the roads through the country of the Mongals were veryunsafe, owing to confusions and civil wars among the hordes, theyremained ten months at So-chew, whence they set out at full moonin the month of Moharram, of the year 825 of the Hegira[12], andcame in a few days to the Karaul at the pass leading into thedesert, where their baggage was searched. Leaving this place onthe nineteenth of Moharram, on purpose to avoid the obstacles anddangers they were likely to encounter, on account of intestinewar among the tribes of the Mongals, they took the road throughthe desert[13], where they suffered much distress on account ofthe scarcity of water. They got out from the desert on thesixteenth of Rabiya-al-awal, and arrived at the city ofKhoten[14] on the ninth of Jomada-al-akher. Continuing theirjourney from thence, they came to the city of Kashgar[15] on thesixth of Rajeb. On the twenty-first of the same month, theambassadors separated a little way beyond the city ofEndkoien[16], some taking the road towards Samarkand, and therest directing their way for Badakshan. Those of Shah Rokharrived at the castle of Shadman on the twenty-first of Shaaban;at Balkh on the first of Ramazan; and on the tenth of that monthat Herat, the residence of their sovereign.

[12] This month began on Thursday the twenty-fifthDecember, 1421.--Astl.
According to Forster, they recommenced their journey in themonth of January, 1421.--E.

[13] Probably taking their route by the lake of Lop,to the south of Little Bucharia.--Astl.

[14] Called likewise Koton, Khateen, and Hotam, inLittle Bucharia, or Eastern Turkistan.--E.

[15] Named likewise Khasiger, Kashar, Cashgar, andHasiker.--Forst.

[16] Probably the same with Anghein, on the riverSir.--Astl.
In Forsters abstract, this place is called Andigan, and thenames of Andischdan and Dedschan are said to besynonymous.--E.

CHAPTER XVIII.

Voyage and Travels of Pietro Quirini intoNorway, in 1431.[1]

[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc. in the North, p.209.

INTRODUCTION.

Pietro Quirini, a Venetian nobleman, was a merchant and masterof a ship belonging to the island of Candia, which at that timewas in the possession of the Venetian republic. With a view bothto fame and profit, he undertook in 1431 a voyage from Candia toFlanders; and towards the end of autumn of that year sufferedshipwreck on the coast of Norway, not far from the island ofRost. He wintered in that island, and in the following summer,1432, travelled through Drontheim to Wadstena, in Sweden, andfrom thence returned to Venice that year. He has himself given anaccount of his adventures, and two of his companions, ChristophoFioravente and Nicolo di Michiel, did the same. Both of thesejournals are to be found in the collection of Ramusio; andextracts have been published from them by Hieronimus Megiserus,in a work entitled, Septentrio Novantiquus, printed in 8vo, atLeipsic in 1613.--Forst.

SECTION I.

Voyage and Shipwreck of Quirini.

On the 25th of April 1431, Pietro Quirini set sail fromCandia, steering westwards to the straits of Gibraltar; but,owing to contrary winds, he was obliged to keep near the coast ofBarbary. On the 2d of June, he passed the straits, and, throughthe ignorance of the pilot, the ship got upon the shoals of StPeter, in consequence of which accident the rudder was thrown offthe hinges, and the ship admitted water in three several places;insomuch that it was with great difficulty they could save thevessel from sinking, and get her into Cadiz. The vessel was hereunloaded; and, having given her a thorough repair, the lading wasagain put on board in twenty-five days after their arrival.Having learned in the meantime that the republic of Venice hadentered into a war with Genoa, he thought proper to augment thenumber of his men, so that his crew in all amounted tosixty-eight. He set sail again on the 14th of July, andendeavoured to bear up for Cape St Vincent; but, owing to astrong north-east wind, which on that coast is calledAgione, he was forced to beat up to windward forty-fivedays at a great distance from land, and was driven into dangerousand unknown seas near the Canary islands. When at length theirstock of provisions was nearly exhausted, they got a fair windfrom the south-west, and directed their course towards thenorth-east; and the iron work about their rudder giving way, theymended it up as well as they could, and arrived safe at Lisbon onthe 25th of August.

Having here carefully repaired the iron work of their rudder,and taken in a fresh stock of provisions, they again set sail onthe 14th of September; and were a second time baffled by contrarywinds, insomuch that they had to put in at the port of Mures inSpain, whence Quirini went with thirteen of his crew to performhis devotions at the shrine of St Jago di Compostella. Theyreturned from thence with all speed, and again set sail with afair wind at south-west, and kept at the distance of 200 milesfrom the land, in hopes the wind might continue. But on the 5thNovember the wind shifting to the east and south-east, preventedthem from entering the English channel, and forced them beyondthe Scilly islands. The wind now again increased in violence, andon the 10th November carried the rudder a second time from itshinges. They slung it by means of ropes to the quarters of theship, but it soon broke loose, and was dragged after the ship forthree days, when, by exerting their utmost efforts, it was againmade fast. The vessel now drove continually farther from land;and as the crew consumed the victuals and drink without bounds ormoderation, two or three of the men were appointed to guard theprovisions, with orders to distribute regular shares to eachperson on board twice a day, Quirini himself not excepted.

As a substitute for their disabled rudder, they constructed,by the advice of the carpenter, out of some spare masts andyards, two rudders with triangular boarded ends, in order tosteady the course of the vessel. These being properly fastenedproved highly serviceable, and inspired them with fresh hopes ofsafety; but, by the extreme violence of the winds and waves, thistheir last refuge was torn away. On the 26th of November thestorm increased to such extreme violence, that they expectedevery moment to founder, and had no doubt this was to have provedthe last day of their lives. By degrees, indeed, the stormabated; but they were driven out to sea to the W.N.W., and thesails, from being perpetually fatigued by the rain and wind, werenow torn to shivers; and though they put up new ones, they weresoon likewise destroyed. The ship now drove without either sailsor rudder, at the mercy of the winds and waves, and was filled bythe sea which continually beat over it; insomuch that the crew,worn out with constant labour, anxiety, and watching, werescarcely able to keep the water under. On heaving the lead theyfound water at 80 fathoms; on which they spliced all their fourcables on end, and rode at anchor for the space of forty hours;when one of die crew, terrified at the dreadful working of theship occasioned by the winds and waves, cut the cable at theforecastle, and the ship now drove about as before. On the 4thDecember, four large waves broke in succession over theirill-fated vessel, and filled it so full of water that it seemedjust ready to sink. By exerting their utmost strength andresolution, the crew baled the water out, though it reached totheir waists, and at length succeeded in emptying the vesselentirely. On the 7th, the tempest increased with such violence,that the sea flowed into the ship uninterruptedly from thewindward, and their speedy destruction seemed quite inevitable;so that they were now of opinion their only chance of safety wasby cutting away the mainmast, which might lighten the ship. Thiswas done therefore immediately; and a large wave fortunatelycarried the mast and yard clear away, by which the ship workedwith considerably less strain and violence. The wind and wavestoo, now became less violent, and they again baled out the water.But now the mast was gone, the ship would no longer keep upright,and lay quite over on one side, so that the water ran into her intorrents; and the people, being quite exhausted with labour andwant of food, had not strength remaining to clear out thewater.

In this desperate situation, expecting every moment that thevessel would sink or go to pieces, they came to the resolution ofendeavouring to save themselves in the boats, of which the largerheld only forty-seven men, and the smaller twenty-one. Quirinihad the choice of either of the boats, and at last went with hisservants, into the larger boat, in which the officers hadembarked. They took with them a stock of provisions; and on the17th December, the winds and waves having somewhat moderated,they quitted their unfortunate ship. Among other costly articlesof commerce, the ship was laden with 800 casks of Malmsey wine,and a great quantity of sweet-scented Cyprus wood, with pepperand ginger. On the following night, the small boat in whichtwenty-one of the crew were embarked, was separated from them bythe violence of the storm, and they never heard of her more.Those in the larger boat were obliged to throw overboard most oftheir stock of wine and provisions, and all their clothes exceptthose they had on, in order if possible to lighten her a little.As the weather proved fair for some time, they steered to theeastwards, in hopes of getting as they thought to Iceland; butthe wind again chopping about, drove them about at its will, andthey were quite ignorant whereabouts they were.

Their liquor now began to fail, and many of the people beingquite exhausted with incessant labour, long watchings, and theother hardships they had undergone, and through scarcity ofprovisions, a great number of them died. So great particularlywas the scarcity of drink, that the allowance for each man wasonly a fourth part of a moderate cupful once in twenty-fourhours. They were better provided with salted meat, cheese, andbiscuit; but this dry and salt food excited an intolerablethirst, which they had no means to quench; in consequence ofwhich some of them died suddenly, and without having exhibitedany previous symptoms of illness; and it was particularlyobserved, that those were first carried off who had formerlylived in the most intemperate manner, and had given themselves upto drunkenness, or had continually indulged themselves inhovering over the fire. Though these had the external appearanceof being strong and healthy, they were least able to endure thehardships they had now to suffer, and two or three of them usedto die in a day. This mortality prevailed for ten days, from the19th to the 29th of December. On the 29th the last remainder ofthe wine was served out, and every one resigned himself to meetdeath, which seemed at hand. Some of the people, urged by ragingthirst, drank sea water, which evidently hastened theirdissolution. Others had recourse to their own urine, and thisnauseous beverage, joined to the precaution of eating as littlesalt provision as possible, contributed most of all to thepreservation of their lives.

For the space of five days they continued in this dreadfulsituation, sailing all the time to the north-eastward. At lengthon the 4th of January, one of the people who sat in the bow ofthe boat, descried somewhat to leeward which he conceived to bethe shadow of land, and immediately informed the crew of hisdiscovery in an anxious voice. All eyes were now eagerly directedto this object, and as day broke they saw with extreme joy thatit really was the land. The sight of this welcome object inspiredthem with fresh vigour, and they now plied their oars in order toarrive the sooner at the shore; but on account of its greatdistance, as well as the shortness of the day, which was only twohours long, they were unable to accomplish this desire. Besides,they were now so weak as to be unable to make use of their oarsfor any length of time; and as night soon overtook them, and wasof long continuance, it seemed to men in their forlorn state asif it would never end. When the next day broke, they could nolonger discern the land which they had seen the day before; butthey discovered another mountainous country very near them and toleeward. That they might not lose the way to this during theensuing night, they took its bearings by the compass, andhoisting sail with a fair wind they reached it about four o'clockin the evening. On approaching the shore, they observed that itwas surrounded by many shallows, as they distinctly heard the seabreaking over these; but they gave themselves up to the guidanceof providence, and at one time the boat grounded on a shoal, buta vast wave came and floated them over, and at the same timecarried them safely to land upon a shelving rock, which was nowtheir great security, as the spot was encompassed on every sidewith rugged projecting rocks, and they could not possibly havegot on shore in any other place. Here therefore they ran theirboat on shore; and those who were on the bows leaped directly onthe coast, which they found entirely covered with snow, whichthey swallowed in immense quantities, filling their parched andburning stomachs and bowels. They likewise filled a kettle andpitcher for those who from weakness remained in the boat; andQuirini alleges, that he swallowed as much snow as he would havefound it difficult to have carried on his back, all his happinessand welfare seeming to depend upon the quantity of it he couldswallow. This extravagant quantity of snow agreed so ill withsome of the people, that five of them died that night; thoughtheir deaths were attributed to the sea water which they hadpreviously drank.

SECTION II.

Preservation of Quirini on the Coast of Norway, andResidence In the Isle of Rostoe.

As they had no rope with, which to make fast their boat to theshore and prevent it from being dashed to pieces, they remainedin it the whole night. Next day at dawn, sixteen weak, miserableand exhausted wretches, the sad remains of forty-seven who hadoriginally taken refuge in the large boat, went on shore and laidthemselves down in the snow. Hunger, however, soon obliged themto examine if there might not remain some of the provisions whichthey had brought with them from the ship: All they found was avery small ham, an inconsiderable remnant of cheese, and somebiscuit dust in a bag, mixed with the dung of mice. These theywarmed by means of a small fire, which they made of the boatseats, and in some measure appeased their hunger. On thefollowing day, having convinced themselves beyond doubt that therock on which they then were was quite desert and uninhabited,they resolved to quit it in hopes of being able to reach someinhabited island, or part of the adjacent coast of Norway; but,after filling five small casks with snow water, and getting intothe boat to put their resolution into execution, the water ran intorrents through all the seams, and the boat went to the bottomimmediately, so that they were forced to get on shore again quitedrenched in the sea. During the whole of the preceding longnight, the boat had been beating against the rock, which hadloosened its planks and opened all the seams. Despairing now ofany relief, as they were utterly destitute of any means to repairtheir boat, they constructed two small tents of their oars andsails, to shelter themselves from the weather, and hewed thematerials of their boat in pieces to make a fire to warmthemselves. The only food they were able to procure consisted ina few muscles and other shell-fish, which they picked up alongthe shore. Thirteen of the company were lodged in one of thetents, and three in the other. The smoke of the wet wood causedtheir faces and eyes to swell so much that they were afraid ofbecoming totally blind; and, what added prodigiously to theirsufferings, they were almost devoured by lice and maggots, whichthey threw by handfuls into the fire. The secretary of Quirinihad the flesh on his neck eaten bare to the sinews by thesevermin, and died in consequence; besides him, three Spaniards ofa robust frame of body likewise died, who probably lost theirlives in consequence of having drank sea water while in the boat;and so weak were the thirteen who still remained alive, thatduring three days they were unable to drag away the dead bodiesfrom the fire side.

Eleven days after landing on this rock or uninhabited island,Quirini's servant, having extended his search for shellfish,their only food, quite to the farthest point of the island, founda small wooden house, both in and around which he observed somecow-dung. From this circ*mstance the forlorn people concludedthat there were men and cattle at no great distance, whichinspired them with, fresh hopes of relief, and revived theirdrooping spirits. This house afforded them abundant room and goodshelter; and all, except three or four, who were too weak to beable for the fatigue of removing to such a distance, changedtheir abode to this hut, crawling with great difficulty throughthe deep snow, the distance being about a mile and a half, andthey took with them as much as they were able of the ruins oftheir boat, to serve them for fire-wood. Two days after this,while going along the shore in search of the usual supply ofshell-fish, one of the company found a very large fish quiterecently cast up by the sea, which appeared to weigh about twohundred pounds, and was quite sweet and fresh. This mostprovidential supply they cut into thin slices and carried totheir dwelling, where they immediately set to work to broil andboil it; but so great was their famine, and so tempting itssmell, that they had not patience to wait till it was thoroughlydressed, but devoured it eagerly half raw. They continued togorge themselves with this fish almost without intermission forfour days; but at length the evident and rapid decrease of thisstock of food taught them more prudent economy, and by using itsparingly in future it lasted them ten days more. Those who staidbehind in one of the tents near the place of their first landing,sent one of their number to see what had become of the rest; and,when he had been refreshed with some of the fish, he carried aportion to his two companions, and the whole survivors were soonafterwards reassembled in the wooden hut. During the whole timethat they subsisted upon the providentially found fish, theweather was so exceedingly tempestuous that they certainly wouldnot have been able to have looked out for shellfish, and theymust inevitably have perished of famine.

Having made an end of the large fish, which seems to havelasted them for fourteen days, they were obliged to have recourseagain to the precarious employment of gathering shellfish alongthe shore for their subsistence. About eight miles from the rockupon which they now were, which Fioravente informs us was calledSanti, or Sand-ey by the natives, there was another islenamed Rustene[1], which was inhabited by several familiesof fishers. It happened that a man and two of his sons came overfrom Rost to Sandey to look after some cattle which wereamissing. Observing the smoke from the hut in which Quirini andhis wretched companions had taken shelter, curiosity led them toexamine the hut. On their approach, their voices were heard bythe people within the hut; but they believed it to be only thescreaming of the sea-fowl who devoured the bodies of theirdeceased companions. Christopher Fioravente, however, went out toexamine whence the unusual sound proceeded; and espying the twoyouths, he ran back in haste, calling aloud to his companionsthat two men were come to seek them. Upon this the whole companyran out immediately to meet the lads, who on their parts wereterrified at the sight of so many poor famished wretches. Theselatter debated for some time among themselves whether they shouldnot detain one of their visitors, with the view of makingthemselves more certain to procure assistance; but Quirinidissuaded them from this projected violence. They all accompaniedthe youths to the boat, and entreated the father and sons to taketwo of their people along with them to their habitations, inorder the sooner to procure them assistance from thence. For thispurpose they chose one Gerrard of Lyons, who had been purser ofthe ship, and one Cola a mariner of Otranto, as these men couldspeak French and a little German.

[1] Rost, or Rostoy.--Forst.

The boat with the fishermen, and the two men who had beendeputed to seek assistance, went over to Rostoe on Friday the31st. of January 1432. On their landing, the inhabitants weremuch astonished at their appearance, but were not able tounderstand them, though the strangers addressed them in differentlanguages; till at last one of the strangers began to speak alittle German with a German priest of the order of friarspredicant who lived there, and informed him who they were andwhence they came. On Sunday the 2d February, which happened to bethe festival of the purification of the blessed Virgin, thepriest admonished all the people of Rostoe to assist the unhappystrangers to the utmost of their power, at the same timerepresenting the hardships and dangers they had undergone, andpointing to the two famished wretches then present. Many of thecongregation were softened even to tears at the recital, and aresolution was formed to bring away the miserable survivors assoon as possible, which they accomplished next day. In the meantime, those who remained behind at Sandey considered the absenceof their companions as extremely long; and what with hunger, coldand anxiety, they were almost dead. Their joy may be more easilyconceived than expressed, when they perceived six boatsapproaching to their relief. On landing, the Dominican priestinquired which of them was the captain of the unhappy crew; andwhen Quirini made himself known as such, the priest presented himwith some rye bread and some beer, which he looked upon as mannasent from heaven. After this the priest took him by the hand, anddesired him to choose two of his companions to accompany him; andQuirini pitched upon Francis Quirini of Candia, and ChristopherFioravente a Venetian, all three embarking in the boat of theprincipal man of Rostoe along with the priest. The rest of thecompany were distributed in the other five boats; and these goodSamaritans went even to the tents where these unfortunates hadfirst dwelt, taking away with them the only survivor of the threemen who had staid behind from weakness, and buried the other two;but the poor invalid died next day.

On the arrival of the boats at Rostoe, Quirini was quarteredwith the principal person of the island: This man's son led himto his father's dwelling, as his debility was so great he wasunable to walk without assistance. The mistress of the house andher maid came forwards to meet him, when he would have fallen ather feet; but she would not permit him, and immediately got him abason of milk from the house, to comfort him and restore hisstrength. During three months and a half that Quirini dwelt inthis house, he experienced the greatest friendship and humanityfrom the owners; while in return he endeavoured by complaisanceto acquire the good will of his kind hosts, and to requite theirbenevolence. The other partners of his misfortunes weredistributed among the other houses of the place, and were alltaken good care of.

The rocky isle of Rost, or Rostoe, lies 70 Italian miles tothe westwards of the southern promontory of Norway, which intheir language they call the worlds backside, and is three milesin circumference[2]. This rocky isle was inhabited at this timeby 120 souls, of whom 72 received the holy communion onEaster-day like good catholics. They get their livelihood andmaintain their families entirely by fishing, as no corn of anykind grows in this very remote part of the world. From the 20thof November to the 20th of February, the nights were twenty-onehours long; and on the contrary, from the 20th of May to the 20thof August the sun is either always seen, or at least the lightwhich proceeds from it. Thus during June, July and August, theymay be said to have one continued day of three months; while inthe opposite months of winter they have one almost continuednight. During the whole year they catch an incredible quantity offish; which, however, are almost solely of two kinds. One ofthese they catch in prodigious quantities in the great bays,which they call stockfish[3]. The other, called Halibut,is a kind of flat fish of an astonishing size, for one of themwas found to weigh near two hundred pounds. The stockfish aredried without being salted, in the sun and air; and, as they havelittle fat or moisture, they grow as dry as wood. When they areto be prepared for eating, they arc beaten very hard with theback part of a hatchet, by which they are divided into filamentslike nerves; after which they are boiled, and dressed with butterand spices to give them a relish. The people of this countrycarry on a considerable trade with these dried stockfish intoGermany. The halibuts, are cut into pieces on account of theirgreat size, and are then salted; in which state they are verygood eating. With these two kinds of fish the people of Rostoeload every year a ship of about 50 tons burthen, which they sendto Bergen, a place in Norway, about a thousand miles from theirisland; and from whence a great number of ships of 300 or 330tons burthen, carry all the produce of the fisheries of differentparts of Norway into Germany, England, Scotland, and Prussia,where they are exchanged against the produce of these countries,particularly for every necessary article of food, drink andclothing, as their own country is so extremely barren andunfruitful, that they cannot raise these things forthemselves.

[2] The small island of Rust probably the onein question, is the south-westernmost of the Loffoden isles ofNorway, in lat. 67°. 80 N. long. 11°. E. and is about 80statute miles from the nearest land of the continent of Norway tothe east. The rest of the Loffoden islands are of considerablesize, and are divided from Norway by the Westfiord, which growsconsiderably narrower as it advances to thenorth-east.--E.

[3] The Cod or Gadus Morrhua, is termed stock-fishwhen dried without salt.--E.

Thus, most of their traffic being carried on by means ofbarter, they have little money among them, nor is it verynecessary. When these exchanges have been made at Bergen, thevessel returns to Rostoe, landing in one other place only, whencethey carry wood sufficient for a whole year's fuel, and for othernecessary purposes.

The inhabitants of these rocks are a well-looking people, andof pure morals. Not being in the least afraid of robbery, theynever lock up any thing, and their doors are always open. Theirwomen also are not watched in the smallest degree; for the guestssleep in the same room with the husbands and their wives anddaughters; who even stripped themselves quite naked in presenceof the strangers before going to bed; and the beds allotted forthe foreigners stood close to those in which their sons anddaughters slept. Every other day the fathers and sons went out afishing by day-break, and were absent for eight hours together,without being under the least anxiety for the honour and chastityof their wives and daughters[4]. In the beginning of May, thewomen usually begin to bathe; and custom and purity of morals hasmade it a law among them, that they should first strip themselvesquite naked at home, and they then go to the bath at the distanceof a bow-shot from the house. In their right hands they carry abundle of herbs to wipe the moisture from their backs, and extendtheir left hands before them, as if to cover the parts of shame,though they do not seem to take much pains about the matter. Inthe bath they are seen promiscuously with the men[5]. They haveno notion of fornication or adultery; neither do they marry fromsensual motives, but merely to conform to the divine command.They also abstain from cursing and swearing. At the death ofrelations, they shew the greatest resignation to the will of God,and even give thanks in the churches for having spared theirfriends so long, and in now calling them to be partakers of thebounty of heaven. They shew so little extravagance of grief andlamentation on these occasions, that it appeared as if thedeceased had only fallen into a sweet sleep. If the deceased wasmarried, the widow prepares a sumptuous banquet for theneighbours on the day of burial; when she and her guests appearin their best attire, and she entreats her guests to eatheartily, and to drink to the memory of the deceased, and to hiseternal repose and happiness. They went regularly to church,where they prayed very devoutly on their knees, and they kept thefast days with great strictness.

[4] This must have appeared a most wonderful relianceupon female chastity, in the opinion of jealous Italians,unaccustomed to the pure morals of the north.--E.

[5] This custom of promiscuous bathing is veryancient, and existed among the Romans, from whom it was learnt bythe Greeks, but gave rise to such shameful lewdness, that it wasprohibited by Hadrian and Antoninus. This law seems to havefallen into oblivion, as even the Christians in after times fellinto the practice, and gave occasion to many decrees of councilsand synods for its prohibition; yet with little effect, as evenpriests and monks bathed promiscuously along with the women.Justinian, in his 117th novel, among the lawful causes ofdivorce, mentions a married woman bathing along with men, unlesswith the permission of her husband. Russia probably adoptedbathing from Constantinople along with Christianity, and in thatcountry promiscuous bathing still continues; and they likewiseuse a bundle of herbs or rods, as mentioned in the text, forrubbing their bodies. --Forst.

Their houses are built of wood, in a round form, having a holein the middle of the roof for the admission of light; and whichhole they cover over in winter with a transparent fish skin, onaccount of the severity of the cold. Their clothes are made ofcoarse cloth, manufactured at London, and elsewhere. They worefurs but seldom; and in order to inure themselves to the coldnessof their climate, they expose their new born infants, the fourthday after birth, naked under the sky-light, which they then opento allow the snow to fall upon them; for it snowed almostcontinually during the whole winter that Quirini and his peoplewere there, from the 5th of February to the 14th of May. Inconsequence of this treatment, the boys are so inured to thecold, and become so hardy, that they do not mind it in theleast.

The isle of Rostoe is frequented by a great number of whitesea-fowl called Muris [6] in the language of the country.These birds are fond of living hear mankind, and are as tame andfamiliar as common pigeons. They make an incessant noise; and insummer, when it is almost one continued day for three months,they are only silent for about four hours in the twenty-four, andthis silence serves to warn the inhabitants of the proper time ofgoing to rest. In the early part of the spring, there arrived anamazing quantity of wild geese, which made their nests on theisland, and even sometimes close to the walls of the houses.These birds are so very tame, that when the mistress of the housegoes to take some eggs from the nest, the goose walks slowlyaway, and waits patiently till the woman has taken what shewants; and when the woman goes away, the goose immediatelyreturns to her nest.

[6] The Norwegians call this species of sea fowlMaase; which is probably the Larus Candidus; a newspecies, named in the voyage of Captain Phipps, afterwards LordMulgrave, Larus eburneus, from being perfectly white. ByJohn Muller, plate xii. it is named Lams albus; and seemsto be the same called Raths kerr, in Martens Spitzbergen,and Wald Maase, in Leoms Lapland. The Greenlanders call itVagavarsuk. It is a very bold bird, and only inhabits thehigh northern latitudes, in Finmark, Norway, Iceland, Greenland,and Spitzbergen. This Maase, or sea-gull, is probably thewhite Muxis of the text.--Forst.

In the month of May, the inhabitants of Rostoe began toprepare for their voyage to Bergen, and were willing also to takethe strangers along with them. Some days before their departure,the intelligence of their being at Rostoe reached the wife of thegovernor over all these islands; and, her husband being absent,she sent her chaplain to Quirini with a present of sixtystockfish, three large flat loaves of rye-bread and a cake: Andat the same time desired him to be informed, that she was toldthe islanders had not used them well, and if he would say in whatpoint they had been wronged, instant satisfaction should beafforded; it was also strongly recommended by that lady to theinhabitants, to give them good treatment, and to take them overto Bergen along with themselves. The strangers returned theirsincere thanks to the lady for the interest she took in theirwelfare, and gave their full testimony, not only to the innocenceof their hosts in regard to what had been alleged, but spoke ofthe kind reception they had experienced in the highest terms. AsQuirini still had remaining a rosary of amber beads which he hadbrought from St Jago in Gallicia, he took the liberty of sendingthem to this lady, and requested her to use them in praying toGod for their safe return into their own country.

When the time of their departure was come, the people ofRostoe, by the advice of their priest, forced them to pay twocrowns for each month of their residence or seven crowns each;and as they had not sufficient cash for this purpose, they gave,besides money, six silver cups, six forks, and six spoons, withsome other articles of small value, which they had saved from thewreck, as girdles and rings. The greater part of these thingsfell into the hands of the rascally priest; who, that nothingmight be left to them of this unfortunate voyage, did not scrupleto exact these as his due for having acted as their interpreter.On the day of their departure, all the inhabitants of Rostoe madethem presents of fish; and on taking leave, both the inhabitantsand the strangers shed tears. The priest, however, accompaniedthem to Bergen, to pay a visit to his archbishop, and to give hima part of the booty.

Norway certainly did not learn the practice of bathing eitherfrom Rome or Constantinople. Some learned men are never contentunless they can deduce the most ordinary practices from classicalauthority, as in the above note by Mr Forster.--E.

SECTION III.

Voyage from Rostoe to Drontheim, and journey thence intoSweden.

At their departure from Rostoe, the season was so faradvanced, being now the end of May, that during this voyage theysaw the image of the sun for forty-eight hours above the horizon;but as they sailed farther to the south, they lost the sun forone hour, though it continued broad day the whole time. Theirwhole course lay between rocks, and they perceived here andthere, near the projecting points of land, the marks of deepnavigable waters, which intersected the coast. Many of theserocks were inhabited, and they were received very hospitably bythe inhabitants, who freely gave them meat and drink, and wouldaccept of no recompense. The sea-fowl, which, when awake, arealways loud and noisy, they found had built their nests in allthe rocks past which they now sailed, and the silence of thesebirds was a signal for them likewise to go to rest.

In the course of their voyage, they met the bishop ofDrontheim; who, with two gallies, and attended by 200 people, wasmaking the tour of his diocese, which extends over all thesecountries and islands. They were presented to this prelate, who,being informed of their rank, country, and misfortunes, expressedgreat compassion for them; and gave them a letter ofrecommendation for his episcopal residence at Drontheim, where StOlave, one of the kings of Norway, was buried. This letterprocured them a kind reception at this place. As the king ofNorway happened at this time to be at war with the Germans, thehost of Quirini, who was likewise master of the vessel, refusedto sail any further; but landing them at a small inhabited islandnear Drontheim, recommended them to the care of the inhabitants,and immediately returned home. On the next day, which wasAscension day, they were conducted to Drontheim, and went intothe church of St Olave, which was handsomely ornamented, andwhere they found the lord-lieutenant with a great number of theinhabitants. After hearing mass, they were conducted before thelord-lieutenant, who asked Quirini if he spoke Latin? and beinginformed by him that he did, invited him and all his attendantsto his table, to which they were conducted by a canon. They wereafterwards taken, by the same canon, to good and comfortablelodgings, and were amply provided with all kinds ofnecessaries.

As Quirini wished for nothing more than to return to his owncountry, he desired therefore advice and assistance to enable himto travel either by the way of Germany or England. That theymight avoid travelling too much by sea, which was not safe onaccount of the war, they were advised to apply to theircountryman, Giovanne Franco, who had been knighted by theking of Denmark, and who resided at his castle of Stichimborg, orStegeborg, in east Gothland, in the kingdom of Sweden, at thedistance of fifty days journey from Drontheim. Eight days aftertheir arrival in Drontheim, the lord-lieutenant gave them twohorses and a guide to conduct them to Stegeborg; and as Quirinihad presented him with his share of the stockfish, a silver seal,and a silver girdle, he received in return a hat, a pair of bootsand spurs, a leathern cloak-bag, a small axe, with the image ofSt Olave, and the lieutenants coat of arms engraved on it, apacket of herrings, some bread, and four Rhenish guilders.Besides the two horses from the lieutenant, they received a thirdhorse from the bishop; and, being now twelve in number, they setout together on their journey, with their guide and three horses.They travelled on for the space of fifty-three days, chiefly tothe south or S.S.E., and frequently met with such miserable innson the road, that they could not even procure bread at them. Insome places they were reduced to such shifts, that the wretchedinhabitants grinded the bark of trees, and made this substanceinto cakes with milk and butter, as a substitute for bread.Besides this they had milk, butter, and cheese given them, andwhey for drink. Sometimes they met with better inns, where theycould procure meat and beer. They met with a kind and heartywelcome, and most hospitable reception wherever they went.

There are but few dwellings in Norway, and they often arrivedat the places where they were to stop in the night, or time ofrepose, though broad daylight. On these occasions, their guide,knowing the customs of the country, opened the door of the housewithout ceremony, in which they found a table surrounded bybenches covered with leathern cushions, stuffed with feathers,which served them for mattresses. As nothing was locked up, theytook such victuals as they could find, and then went to rest.Sometimes the masters of the houses in which they stopt wouldcome in and find them asleep, and be much amazed till the guideacquainted them with their story, on which their astonishmentbecame mingled with compassion, and they would give thetravellers every thing necessary without taking any remuneration;by which means these twelve persons, with the three horses, didnot spend more than the four guilders they had received atDrontheim, during their journey of fifty-three days.

On the road they met with horrid barren mountains and vallies,and with a great number of animals like roes[1], besidesabundance of fowls, such as hasel-hens, and heath-co*cks, whichwere as white as snow, and pheasants the size of a goose[2]. InSt Olave's church at Drontheim, they saw the skin of a whitebear, which was fourteen feet and a half long; and they observedother birds, such as gerfalcons, goss-hawks[3], and several otherkinds of hawks, to be much whiter than in other places, onaccount of the coldness of the country.

[1] The Rein-deer, Cervus tarandus,Lin.--Forst.

[2] Probably the Tetrao lagopus,Lin.--Forst.

[3] Falco Gyrfalcus, and Falcoastur.--Forst.

Four days before they reached Stegeborg, they came to a towncalled Wadstena, in which St Bridget was born, and where she hadfounded a nunnery, together with chaplains of the same order. Atthis place the northern kings and princes have built a mostmagnificent church covered with copper, in which they countedsixty-two altars. The nuns and chaplains received the strangerswith great kindness; and, after resting two days, they set out towait on the chevalier Giovanne Franco, who relieved them in amanner that did honour to his generosity, and did every thing inhis power to comfort them in their distressed situation. Afortnight after their arrival at his residence, a plenaryindulgence was given at the church of St Bridget, in Wadstena, towhich people from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, and even fromGermany, Holland, and Scotland, came to partake; some of whomcame from a distance of more than 600 miles. They went to theindulgence at Wadstena along with Giovanne Franco, in order toinquire if there were any ships bound for Germany or England,there being always a great concourse of people on such occasions.The chevalier was five days on the road, and had more than 100horses in his train. At Wadstena they took leave of theirbeneficent countryman, who furnished them amply with money andclothes for their journey, and ordered his son Matthew, a veryamiable young man, to accompany them eight days journey on theirway to Lodese, on the river Gotha; and where he lodged them inhis own house for some time, till the ship in which they were toembark was ready to sail The chevalier Franco lent them his ownhorses all the way from his castle of Stegeborg; and, as Quiriniwas ill of a fever, he mounted him on a horse which had awonderfully easy pace.

From Lodese, three of Quirini's crew went home in a vesselbound for Rostock, and eight of them accompanied him to England,where they came to their friends in London, by way of Ely andCambridge. After residing two months at London, they tookshipping thence for Germany; and, travelling thence by way ofBasil, in Switzerland, they arrived, after a journey oftwenty-four days, in safety and good health at Venice.

CHAPTER XIX.

Travels of Josaphat Barbaro, Ambassadorfrom Venice to Tanna, now called Asof, in 1436.[1]

[1] Forster, Voy. and Disc, in the North p.165.

INTRODUCTION.

Josaphat Barbaro, a Venetian, was sent, in the year 1436, bythe republic of Venice, as ambassador to Tanna, now called Asof,which at that time was in the hands of the Genoese. This relationwas printed in a small and scarce collection at the Aldus pressin Venice, by Antonio Minutio in 1543, and was afterwardsinserted in the collection of Giovanne Baptista Ramusio. Thefollowing is an abstract of that journey. He went afterwards intoPersia in 1471, as ambassador to Ussum Hassan, or Assambei, aTurkomanian prince of the white weather tribe, and was sixteenyears among the Tartars; and on his return to his native countrywrote an account of both these expeditions. He died at Venice ata very advanced age, in 1494.

These travels are not given in any regular order, nor is anyitinerary mentioned. It would appear that he resided for sometime at Tanna, now Asof, making several journeys into the Crimea,and among the nations which inhabit between the Don and theWolga, the Black Sea and the Caspian; and that he returned homeby way of Moscow, Novogorod, Warsaw, and Francfort on the Oder,and through Germany into Italy.

Josaphat Barbaro began his journey to Tanna in 1436, andexplored that country with great assiduity, and a spirit ofinquiry that does him much honour, partly by land and partly bywater, for sixteen years. The plain of Tartary is bounded on theeast by the great river Ledil, Edil, or Wolga; on the west byPoland; on the north by Russia; on the south by the Great orBlack Sea, Alania, Kumania or Comania, and Gazaria, all of whichborder on the sea of Tebache[2]. Alania has its name from thepeople called Alani, who call themselves As in their ownlanguage. These people were Christians, and their country hadbeen ravaged and laid waste by the Tartars or Mongals. Theprovince of Alania contains many mountains, rivers, and plains,and in the latter there are many hills made by the hand of man,serving for sepulchral monuments, on the top of each of whichthere is a flat stone with a hole in it, in which a stone crossis fixed. About 110 years before the journey of Barbaro, or in1326, the religion of Mahomet was adopted by the Tartars orMongals; though, indeed, before that period there were someMahometans in the country, but every one was permitted to followwhat religion he chose. In consequence of this, some worshippedwooden images, which they carried about with them on their cartsor moveable huts: But the compulsatory establishment of theMahometan religion takes its date from the time of Hedighi,Edigi, or Jedighei, who was a general under the Tartarian emperorSidahameth khan. This Hedighi was the father of Naurus, in whosedays Ulu-Mohameth, or Mahomet the great, was khan of theTartars.

[2] Called likewise the sea of Zabachi,Ischaback-Denghissi, the Palus Maeotis, and Sea ofAsof.--Forst.

A misunderstanding happened between the Naurus and the khanUlu-Mohameth, in consequence of which Naurus retired to the riverLedil or Wolga, attended by the Tartar tribes who adhered to himpersonally, and joined himself to Khezi-Mohamet, or littleMahomed, who was a relation to the khan or emperor. Naurus andKhezi resolved to make war against Ulu, and accordingly marchedwith their combined forces by way of Giterchan or Astrakan, andthrough the plains of Tumen, or the great step or desert, whichextends from the Wolga to the Don, and quite down the mountainsof Caucasus. On this march westwards they kept southwards closeto Circassia, and turned off towards the Don and the sea of Asof,both of which were frozen over. In order to find food for theircattle and horses, they marched in separate parties, at so greata distance from each other, that some crossed the river Don at aplace called Palastra, while others crossed it where it wascovered with ice, near Bosagaz, which two places are 120 milesseparate from each other; yet so well were their movementscombined, that they came upon Ulu-Mohameth quite unexpectedly,and he was constrained to fly with his wife and children, leavingevery thing in confusion behind him, as Khezi Mohameth becameemperor or khan in his stead, and again crossed the Don in themonth of June.

Proceeding westwards to the left from Tanna or Asof, along thecoast of the sea of Zabachi, or the Palus Maeotis, and then forsome distance along the Great or Black Sea, quite to the provinceof Mingrelia, one arrives, after three days journey, at theprovince of Chremuch, Kremuk, or Kromuk, the sovereign ofwhich is called Bisserdi[3], and his son is namedChertibei[4], which signifies the true or real lord.Bisserdi possesses a beautiful country, adorned with fertilefields, considerable rivers, and many fine woods, and can raiseabout a thousand horse. The higher order of the people in thiscountry chiefly subsist by plundering the caravans. They haveexcellent horses; the people are valiant, inured to war, and veryartful; but have nothing singular in their manners andappearance. Their country abounds in corn, cattle, and honey; butproduces no wine. Beyond this country there are other provinces,which have a different language, and are not far from eachother[5]. These in their order, considering Kremuk as the first,are, 2. Elipehe (Chippiche, or Kippike); 3.Tartarkosia (otherwise Tatakosia, Titarcossa, Tatartofia,or Tatartussia); 4. Sobai; 5. Chernethei (otherwiseCheuerthei, Khewerthei, Kharbatei, Kherbarthei, or Khabarda); 6.As, or the Alani. All these provinces extend for twelvedays journey, quite to Mingrelia; which latter province borderson the Kaitacchi or Chaitaki, who live about the Caspianmountains; and partly also near Georgiana, and on theshores of the Black Sea, and on the range of mountains whichextends into Circassia. On one side likewise Mingrelia isencompassed by the river Phasis, which falls into the Black Sea.The sovereign of this country is called Bendian, orDadian, and is in possession of two fortified towns near the sea,one of which is called Vathi, or Badias, and the name ofthe other is Savastopol[6]. Besides these he has several othercastles and fortified rocks. The whole country is stony andbarren, and millet is the only kind of grain that it produces.They get their salt from Kaffa. They manufacture some dark coarsestuffs, and are a gross and barbarous people. In this countryTetarti signifies white, and the word is likewiseused to denote silver coin: thus likewise the Greeks call silvermoney Aspro[7], the Turks Akeia, and the Kathayans Teugh,all of which words signify white; and hence, both inVenice and in Spain, certain silver coins are all calledbianchi, which has the same signification.

[3] This is explained to signify Deodati, or Given byGod.--Forst.

[4] The Ch is used in Italian orthographybefore e and i to indicate the letter k.Hence Cheremuch is Kererouk, and Chertibei, Kertibei, orKertibey. In the perpetually varying nomenclature, from vitiousorthography, and changes of dominion, it is often difficult toascertain the nations or districts indicated. This is peculiarlythe case in the present instance, and the sequel, whichenumerates a number of the Caucasian petty tribes, lying between,the sea of Asof and the Caspian, now mostly subject to theRussian empire, whose momentary names and stations we dare notpretend to guess at.--E.

[5] This odd expression, that these provinces are notfar from each other, certainly means that they are notlarge.--E.

[6] Otherwise called Sebastopolis, also Isguriah orDioskurios.--Forst.

[7] Hence Asper, the ordinary denomination ofsilver coin in moderns Turkey is evidently borrowed from theGreek.--E.

We must now give some account of Georgiana, Georgia, orGurgistan, which lies opposite to the last mentioned places, andborders on Mingrelia. The king of Georgia is called Pancratius,and is sovereign of a delightful country, which produces bread,corn, wine, cattle, and all other fruits of the earth in greatabundance; and they train up their vines around trees as inTrebisond. The people are very handsome and well made, but theyhave the most horrid manners, and the worst customs of any peopleI ever met with. Their heads are shaved, except a few hairs allaround, like our rich abbots; and they wear whiskers, six incheslong. On their heads they wear a cap of various colours, with afeather on the top. Their bodies are covered by a strait-bodiedjacket, having tolerably long skirts, which are cloven behind,quite up to their loins, as otherwise they could not convenientlysit on horseback; but I do not blame them for this fashion, asthe French wear the same kind of dress. On their feet and anklesthey wear boots, but the soles are so strangely made, that when aman walks, his heels and toes only touch the ground, while themiddle of the foot is raised up so high, that one may thrust thefist through below; and thence they walk with great difficulty. Ishould blame them for this, if I had not known that the samefashion prevails in Persia. At their meals, they have thefollowing custom, which I saw in the house of one of their greatmen. They use a quadrangular table, about half an ell across,having a projecting rim, on the middle of which they heap up aquantity of boiled millet, which is without salt or fat, or anyother seasoning, and this they eat to their meat by way of bread.On another similar table, but having live coals underneath, therewas some wild boars flesh, but so little roasted that the bloodran out when it was cut, and of this they are very fond. For mypart, I thought it quite disgusting, and was forced to contentmyself with a little millet, as we had no other provisions. Therewas wine, however, in abundance, which was handed round thecompany with great hospitality.

In this country there are a great number of woods andmountains. One of its districts is named Tiflis, in which is atown of the same name, situate on the Kur or Kyrus, which runsinto the Caspian. Gori is likewise a fortified place in the samecountry, and lies nearer to the Black Sea.

Going from Tanna or Asof, by the river Don, and along the seaof Tabache or Asof, quite to Kaffa, and keeping that sea close onthe left hand, we come to an isthmus or narrow neck of land,which connects the peninsula of the Crimea; with the mainland,and which is named Zuchala[8]. This is similar to that calledEssimilia, formerly the Isthmus of Corinth, which connects theMorea or Peloponnesus with the continent of Greece. Near thisisthmus of Zuchala, there are large salt water lakes, from whichthe salt crystallizes in summer, and is taken out in largequantities for the supply of the surrounding nations.

[8] Now Precop.--E.

Within the peninsula, and on the sea of Tabache or Asof, thefirst province we come to is Kumania, deriving its namefrom the people called Kumanians. The chief province is calledGazzaria or Chazaria, in which Caffa is situate; and themeasure of length used by merchants in all these countries iscalled the Gazzarian ell, which is even used at Tanna[9].

[9] Kumania and Gazzaria, here said to be provincesof the Crimea, or island of Kaffa, must have been small districtsof that peninsula, inhabited by tribes of the Kumanians andGazzarians of the country between the sea of Asof and the mouthsof the Wolga, now frequently called the Cuban Tartary. The wholeof that country, together with the country between the Wolga andUral rivers, often bore the name of Kumania. But the destructiveconquests of the Mongals, has in all ages broken down the nationsof those parts into fragments, and has induced such rapid andfrequent changes as to baffle all attempts at any fixedtopography, except of lakes, rivers, andmountains.--E.

The low country of the island of Kaffa[10] is occupied by theTartars, who are governed by a prince named Ulubi[11], theson of Azicharei. They are able, in case of need, to bring3000 or 4000 horse into the field. These people possess twowalled towns, which are by no means strong. One of these,Sorgathi[12], is by them likewise called Incremiaor Chirmia, which signifies a fortification. The other isCherchiarde or Kerkiarde[13], which signifies fortyplaces in their language[14]. On the island, which the Italianscall the Cimmerian Bosphorus, close to the mouth of the sea ofAsof, is Cherz, Kersch, or Kars[15]. Then come Kaffa[16],Saldaia[17], Grassui[18], Cymbalo[19], Sarsona orCherson[20], and Kalamita[21]. Farther on from Kaffa liesGothia, and still farther Alania, which is without theisland towards Moncastro[22].

[10] The ancient Taurica Chersonesus; the Crimea ofour days, now again called Taurida by theRussians.--E.

[11] Probably Ulu-beg, or the greatprince.--E.

[12] Soragathi or Solgathi, is named by AbulfedaSoldet or Kirm; and is at present called Eskikyrym, or the OldCitadel.--Forst. From the name of this place, Chirmia, Kirmia,Kirm, or Crim, the name of the peninsula and its inhabitants,Chrimea, and Crim-Tartars, are evidentlyderived.--E.

[13] Kerkiardi is the Kerkri of Abulfeda, andsignifies in Turkish forty men. Some call the place Kyrk, and thePoles name it Kirkjel. It is situated on an inaccessiblemountain, and was one of the castles belonging to the Goths whodwelt in those mountains, absurdly called Jews by some authors;of whom some traces remained not long ago, as their languagecontained many words resembling German.--Forst.

[14] I should suspect that this term, here applied toone place only, had been originally the general appellation ofthe forty castles belonging to the Goths, who longdefended themselves in the Tauric Chersonese. The ridiculousconversion of these Goths into Jews, may be accounted for, bysupposing that some ignorant transcriber had changed Teutschiinto Judei, either in copying or writing from theear.--E.

[15] The Pantikapaeum of the ancient Bosphoriankings. The Ol-Kars of Abulfeda.--Forst.

[16] This is nearly on the same spot with theTheodosia of the Greeks and Romans.--Forst.

[17] Otherwise Soldadia, Soldadia, or more properlySugdaja, now Sudak or Suday, by which name it is mentioned inAbulfeda.--Forst.

[18] Grasui, or Grusui, now unknown, perhaps stood ata place now called Krusi-musen, which seems to preserve sometraces of the name.--Forst

[19] Called likewise Cimbolo, the [Greek: SymbolanHormoos] or [Greek: lymaen], the Buluk-lawa of the moderns, orLimen.--Forst.

[20] Otherwise Sherson and Schurschi; which wasformerly called Cherson Trachea, and was built 600 years beforethe Christian era, by the inhabitants of Heraclea in Pontus. Itwas also called Chersonesus, or the Peninsula; but that termproperly signified the whole of the peninsula between thisharbour and Symbolon or Limen, which was entirely occupied by theGreeks. The Russians took this place in the reign of Wolodimerthe great, and it is called Korsen in their annals. By the Turks,it is named Karaje-burn. It must be carefully distinguished fromanother Cherson on the Dnieper, at no great distance, but not inthe peninsula.--Forst.

[21] This seems a corruption of Klimata; as all thetowns named by Barbaro formerly belonged to [Greek: chastxa tonchlimata] of the Greeks, and all belonged till lately to theTurks.--Forst.

[22] This is a place at the mouth of the Dniestercalled Ak-Kierman by the Turks; Tshelatalba by the Walachians;Belgorod by the Russians; Aspro Kastra by the Greeks; andMoncastro by the Genoese. It was the Alba Julia, of theRomans.--Forst.

The Goths of these places speak a dialect of the Germanlanguage, as I learned from a German servant who accompanied meon my travels; for he conversed with them, and they understoodeach other tolerably well, just as a native of Friuli in thePopes dominions might understand a Florentine[23]. From thevicinity, or intermixture of the Goths and Alanians, originatesthe denomination of Gotitalani. The Alanians were thefirst inhabitants of this county: The Goths came at an afterperiod and made a conquest of part of the country inhabited bythe Alanians; and, as the two nations mingled together, thismixed name became likewise into use. All these people profess theGreek religion, which is likewise followed by the Tscherkassians,or Circassians.

[23] This circ*mstance was before noticed byRubruquis, and is likewise mentioned by Busbeck. Father Mohndorfmet with many slaves in the gallies at Constantinople, who weredescended from the Goths, and spoke a dialect of German. Now thatthe Crimea belongs to Russia, it is to be wished that theremaining traces of the Gothic language may be inquired after; asthis language might serve to explain and illustrate the remainswe still possess of Ulfila's translation of the gospels intoGothic; while the names and customs of this people, together withmany of their phrases and turns of expression, might throw lighton the manners and customs of the ancient Germans. It is evenpossible, that some families among them, of the higher rank, maystill possess some books in their ancient language, which wouldbe a very important discovery.--Forst.

Having already made mention of Tumen and Githerean, I shallnow relate some remarkable particulars concerning them. Goingfrom Tumen eastwards, or rather to the north-east, in seven daysjourney we arrive at the river Ledil[24], on the banks ofwhich stands Githercan[25], a small insignificant town,laid waste, and in ruins. It was formerly a very considerable andcelebrated place; as before the devastation of it by Tamerlane,the spices and silks which go to Syria[26] were carried byGithercan, and thence to Tanna, from whence they were brought, bysix or seven large gallies to Venice; for at that time no othernation besides Venice traded to Syria. The Ledil or Wolga is alarge and very broad river, which discharges itself into the Seaof Baku, or the Caspian, twenty-five Italian miles belowAstracan; and both this river and the Caspian, which is tolerablysalt, contain innumerable quantities of fish called tunnies andsturgeons. One may sail up this river to within three daysjourney of Moscow in Russia; and the inhabitants of that place goevery year with their vessels to Astracan, to procure salt. Thepassage downwards is easy, as the river Mosco runs into the Oka,and that again into the Wolga. In this river there are manyislands, and many forests along its banks. Some of these islandsare thirty miles in circumference; and in the forests there aretrees of such vast size, that one of them may be hollowed into aboat, that will require eight or ten horses, and twice as manymen, to draw it against the stream. Crossing the river Wolga, andgoing fifteen days journey to the north-west, along the river, wemeet with innumerable hordes of Tartars. But in travellingnorthwards, towards Russia, we come to a small town calledRisan[27], which belongs to a relation of the grand duke ofRussia. The inhabitants of this place are all Christians, andfollow the usages of the Greek church. This country abounds incorn, cattle, honey, and other good things; and they import aspecies of beer called Bossa[28]; and the country aboundsin woods and villages without number. Somewhat farther, and abouthalf way between Riazan and Moscow, is a town called Colonna. Thefortifications, both of Riazan and Colonna, are built of timber,as are also the houses; as nothing is to be seen in these partsconstructed of brick or stone. Three days journey from Colonna,to the north-west, we come to the city and province of Moscow, orMosqua, where the great Duke Jvan or John resides; and throughthis province there runs a river of the same name, having severalbridges over it; and from which the city and province haveprobably acquired their names. The castle of Moscow is situatedupon a hill, and is encompassed round with woods[29].

[24] Otherwise called Erdir, Erdil, Atel, Athol,Etilia, and now the Volga or Wolga.--Forst.

[25] Likewise named Citracan and Astrakhan,Astracan.--Forst.

[26] There is an obvious blunder here, for thisaccount of the trade must be understood as follows: "That thetrade in silks and spices from the East, which now come by way ofSyria, came over land by way of Astracan to Tanna, whence it wastransported by sea to Venice." The concluding sentence, "That noother nation but the Venetians then traded with Syria," is quiteinexplicable; as the Syrian trade could not possibly come toVenice by way of Astracan and Tanna. The various routes of tradefrom India or the East to Western Europe, before the Portuguesediscovered the way by sea, have been well illustrated by DrRobertson; and will be explained in the course of thiswork.--E.

[27] Riazan on the Oka, the capital of a province orthe same name.--E.

[28] Even at present, they make an inebriating liquorin Russia, from millet, called busa, which is very heady, and isprobably what is named bossa in the text--Forst.

[29] I strongly suspect that this passage is wrongtranslated, and that it ought to have been, that the castle asencompassed with wooden walls, as it is well known that the cityof Moscow environs the castle or Kremlin.--E.

The fertility of this country, in respect to corn and cattle,may be understood from this circ*mstance, that flesh is not soldby weight, but they give it out in large pieces, as much as wouldweigh four pounds[30]. Seventy hens may be bought for a ducat,worth four or five shillings; and a goose may be had for lessthan threepence. In this country, the cold of winter is verysevere, and the rivers are long frozen over: Taking advantage ofthis circ*mstance, they carry oxen and other beasts to market inwinter, ready slaughtered, skinned, and embowelled; which theyset up on their feet in the market places, frozen as hard as astone, and in such numbers, that one may buy 200 or more of themat a time. Cutting them in pieces, as in our markets, is quiteimpossible, as they are as hard as marble, and are delivered outwhole. The only fruits to be met with are apples, nuts, and smallwalnuts. When the Russians have a mind to travel, especially ifthe distance is very great, they prefer the winter season, whenthe whole country is covered over with frozen snow, and all therivers are passable on the ice. They then travel with greatconvenience and expedition, being only subjected to the severityof the cold. At this season, they use sledges, which are to themas waggons are to us; and in them they take every thing alongwith them, with the utmost ease, that they have a mind to. In thesummer, the roads are extremely miry, and full of inequalities,proceeding from the country being extremely woody; and they donot therefore take long journeys at that season, more especiallyas it is very thinly inhabited. They have no grapes, but make aspecies of wine from honey, and a kind of beer from millet, intowhich they put hop blossoms, of which the odour is so strong, asto occasion sneezing, and which intoxicates like wine. I must notomit to mention in this place, that, about twenty-five years ago,the great duke, on finding that his subjects were much addictedto drinking, which made them neglect their affairs, gave ordersthat no more beer or mead should be made; by which means, heobliged them, to live sober and regular lives. Besides this, hedid many other things for the advantage of his dominions.

[30] This expression has no meaning. Barbaro probablywrote that four pounds could be had at Moscow for the same moneythat would buy one in Venice.--E.

Before the reign of this prince, the Russians paid tribute tothe Tartars; but they have now conquered a country called Kasan,which is 500 miles to the east of Moscow, and the chief city ofwhich lies on the left bank of the Wolga, in descending towardsthe sea of Bochri, or the Caspian[31]. This country ofKasan enjoys considerable trade, especially in furs, of whichlarge quantities are carried from thence by way of Moscow toPoland, Prussia, and Flanders. These furs come from a greatdistance to the north-east, out of the empire of Zagathai[32],and from Moxia[33]; both of which northern districts areinhabited by Tartars, part of whom are idolaters, particularlythe Moxians, who continue so to this day.

[31] The Caspian, besides the names of Bochri andBakhu, is likewise called the sea of Khozar, and the sea ofTabristan.--E.

[32] Zagathai was one of the sons of the greatconqueror Zingis Khan, and received that part of the empire forhis share, which comprehended Turkistan, Mawaralnahar, andKuaresm; which extensive country took from him the name ofZagathai.--Forst.
The furs mentioned in the text could not be brought from thiscountry, which besides, is to the south-east of Kasan. Tothe north-east lies Siberia, the true country of fine furs; andwhich Barbara, by mistake, must have named Zagathai: thoughperhaps it might at one time form part of that extensiveempire.--E.

[33] Moxia is the country of the Morduanians, onetribe of whom call themselves Mokscha, orMoxa.--Forst.

Having received some account of these Moxians, I shall relate,what I know concerning their religious customs. At a certainseason they lead a horse into the middle of their assembly, andfasten it strongly by the head and feet to five stakes, driveninto the ground for that purpose. After this, a particular persongoes to some distance, with his bow and arrows, and shoots at theheart of the animal till he has killed him. The horse is thenflayed, and the flesh eaten after the performance of certainceremonies. They then stuff the horses skin with straw, and sewit up, so as to appear entire, fixing pieces of wood under theskin of the legs, that the stuffed animal may stand up as it didwhen alive. They next construct a scaffold, amid the branches ofa large tree, upon which they fix the stuffed horse skin, andworship it as a god; offering up to it the furs of sables,ermines, grey squirrels, and foxes, which they hang among theboughs of the sacred tree, just as we offer up wax-lights to theimages of the saints. The food of this people consists mostly offlesh, and that chiefly of venison, got by hunting; but theylikewise catch abundance of fish in the rivers of their country.Many of the Tartars are idolaters, and carry the idols which theyworship about with them, on carts, in their moveable huts; andsome of them have the strange custom of worshipping each day, theanimal they meet first in a morning, after going out of theirhouses.

The grand duke of Russia has likewise conquered Nowgorod, orNovogorod[34]. This is an extensive province, about eight daysjourney to the north-west of Moscow, which was formerly arepublic. The inhabitants were without sense or reason, and had agreat many heretics among them; but at present, the catholicfaith makes its way among them by degrees, though some are stillmisbelievers. In the meantimes, however, they lead more rationallives, and justice is properly administered.

[34] This word signifies the New Castle; of this namethere are two cities and provinces in European Russia, Novogorodproper, and Nisney Novogorod: The former is the one heremeant.--E.

Poland is twenty-two days journey from Moscow; and the firstplace we come to in Poland is a fortified town, called Trocki, orTrozk[35], to which we arrive through woods, and over hills,travelling a long way in an uninhabited desert. There are, it istrue, certain places by the way, in which travellers may rest awhile, and make a fire, if ordered before hand; and sometimes,though very rarely, one finds a small hamlet or two, a little wayout of the road. Going beyond Trozk, one meets with more hillsand forests, in which there are some habitations; and nine daysjourney beyond Trozk, we come to a fortified town calledLoniri or Lonin[36]. After this, we quit that part ofPoland called Lithuania, and come to a district namedVarsonich[37], which belongs to certain lords, who aresubject to Kazimir, or Cassimir, King of Poland. This partof the country is fertile, and contains a great many walled townsand villages, but none of any great importance. From Warsaw, itis seven days journey to the frontiers of Poland, through a goodand beautiful country; where one meets with Mersaga[38], atolerably good town, where Poland ends. Respecting the towns andprovinces of Poland, I shall say nothing farther, for want ofproper information; except that the king and his sons, and wholehousehold, are very good Christians, and that the eldest of hissons is king of Bohemia.

[35] This is near Wilna inLithuania.--Forst.

[36] I imagine that Slonym is here meant; formerly aplace of note, and which used to be the appanege of one of theLithuanian princes. --Forst.

[37] Varsonich is an evident corruption forVarsovich, or Warsaw, the capital of Masurea orMasovia.--Forst.

[38] It is not easy to determine the situation ofMersaga; but, as on the borders of Poland, towardsBrandenburgh, and in the direction of Francfort on the Oder, itis probable that Meseriz, or Miedzyrzyez, is heremeant.--Forst.

Travelling four days more beyond Poland, we came to Francfort,a city which belongs to the Margrave of Bandenburgh. But havingreached Germany, I shall say nothing of it, as we are now in amanner at home, and in a country with which most people are wellacquainted.

END OF VOLUME FIRST.